Name: cellular respiration: atp production steps
Uploaded: 2025-10-23T11:48:32.000Z
Duration: 1 min 22 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

9-12

Life Science

matter-and-energy-in-organisms-and-ecosystems

Matter and Energy in Organisms and Ecosystems

3.1.9-12.G

Introduction to Cellular Respiration

التنفس الخلوي هو عملية هدم يتم فيها كسر الجزيئيات العضوية لتوليد طاقة قابلة للاستخدام عن طريق سلسلة نقل الإلكترون. تحتاج هذه العملية لدى البشر إلى الأكسجين وكذلك معظم الكائنات الأخرى وتنتج ثاني أكسيد الكربون والماء والحرارة وطاقة قابلة للاستخدام على شكل أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات. في حين أن العديد من الجزيئيات العضوية المختلفة والسكر والأحماض الأمينية والدهون يمكن استخدامها في عملية التنفس الخلوي،بينما يتم استخدام الجلوكوز كنموذج أولي.وبالتالي فإن معادلة التنفس الخلوي هي،جلوكوز زائد 6 ذرات أكسجين ينتجان 6 ذرات ثاني أكسيد الكربون زائد 6 ذرات ماء وطاقة. عكس عملية البناء الضوئي. يحدث هذا التفاعل في خطوات متعددة.يتحلل السكر في السيتوبلازما،ودورة أكسدة البيروفات وحمض الستريك تحدث في الميتوكوندريا،والفسفرة التأكسدية تحدث على غشاء الميتوكوندريا الداخلي. تعمل هذه العمليات مجتمعة على تقوية النشاطات الخلوية الناتجة عن الحركة السطحية وانقباض العضلات عبر هدم الجزيئيات العضوية لإنتاج أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات.

ما هو التنفس الخلوي؟

تحصد الكائنات الحية الطاقة من الطعام ، ولكن لا يمكن للخلايا أن تستخدم هذه الطاقة بشكل مباشر. تحول الخلايا الطاقة المخزنة في العناصر الغذائية إلى شكل أكثر قابلية للاستخدام: أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات (ATP).

يخزن أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات الطاقة في روابط كيميائية يمكن إطلاقها بسرعة عند الحاجة. تنتج الخلايا الطاقة في شكل أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات من خلال عملية التنفس الخلوي. على الرغم من إطلاق قدر كبير من الطاقة من التنفس الخلوي كحرارة ، إلا أن بعضاً منها يستخدم لصنع أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات.

أثناء التنفس الخلوي ، تنقل العديد من تفاعلات اختزال الأكسدة الإلكترونات من الجزيئات العضوية إلى الجزيئات الأخرى. هنا ، تشير الأكسدة إلى فقد الإلكترون واختزاله لكسب الإلكترون. حاملات الإلكترون NAD+ و FAD _ و أشكالها المختَزلة ، NADH و FADH2 ، على التوالي _ ضرورية لعدة خطوات من التنفس الخلوي.

تستخدم بعض بدائيات النوى التنفس اللاهوائي الذي لا يتطلب الأكسجين. تستخدم معظم الكائنات الحية التنفس الهوائي (الذي يحتاج إلى الأكسجين) ، والذي ينتج المزيد من أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات. يولد التنفس الهوائي أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات عن طريق تكسير الجلوكوز والأكسجين إلى ثاني أكسيد الكربون والماء.

يبدأ كل من التنفس الهوائي واللاهوائي بتحلل السكر الذي لا يتطلب الأكسجين. يكسر تحلل الجلوكوز الجلوكوز إلى بيروفات ، مما ينتج عنه أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات. في حالة عدم وجود الأكسجين ، تخمر البيروفات ، مما ينتج NAD+ ليستمر تحلل السكر. الأهم من ذلك ، أن عدة أنواع من الخميرة تستخدم التخمير الكحولي. يمكن لخلايا العضلات البشرية أن تستخدم تخمير حمض اللاكتيك عندما ينضب الأكسجين. ينتهي التنفس اللاهوائي بالتخمير.

ومع ذلك ، يستمر التنفس الهوائي مع أكسدة البيروفات. تولد أكسدة البيروفات أسيتيل-CoA ، والذي يدخل في دورة حمض الستريك. تتكون دورة حمض الستريك من العديد من تفاعلات الأكسدة والاختزال التي تطلق طاقة الرابطة للأسيتيل-CoA ، مما ينتج أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات وحاملات الإلكترون المختزلة NADH و FADH2.

تولد المرحلة الأخيرة من التنفس الخلوي ، الفسفرة المؤكسدة ، معظم الأدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات. NADH و FADH2 يمرران إلكتروناتهما عبر سلسلة نقل الإلكترون. تطلق سلسلة نقل الإلكترون الطاقة التي تُستخدم لطرد البروتونات ، مما يخلق تدرجاً بروتونياً يتيح تخليق أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات.

تحصد الكائنات الحية الطاقة من الطعام ، لكن الخلايا لا يمكن استخدامها مباشرة لهذه الطاقة. تقوم الخلايا بتحويل الطاقة المخزنة في العناصر الغذائية إلى مواد أكثر قابلية للاستخدام ...

Education

JoVE Core

Biology

علم الأحياء

Cellular Processes

العمليات الخلوية

Cellular Respiration

التنفس الخلوي

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

المصطلحات والمفاهيم الأساسية

cellular respiration: atp production steps

Cellular respiration is the process cells use to turn energy from food into ATP. ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, stores energy in chemical bonds that can be released quickly when cells need it. Much of the energy released during respiration becomes heat, but some of it is captured to make ATP.

This process depends on oxidation-reduction, or redox, reactions. In these reactions, oxidation means electron loss and reduction means electron gain. The electron carriers NAD+ and FAD, along with their reduced forms NADH and FADH2, play essential roles in several stages of cellular respiration.

Most organisms use aerobic respiration, which requires oxygen and breaks down glucose and oxygen into carbon dioxide and water. Some prokaryotes use anaerobic respiration, which does not require oxygen. Both aerobic and anaerobic respiration begin with glycolysis, and glycolysis can happen without oxygen.

Glycolysis splits glucose into pyruvate and produces ATP. If oxygen is missing, pyruvate undergoes fermentation so NAD+ can be regenerated for continued glycolysis. Yeast carry out alcoholic fermentation, while human muscle cells can use lactic acid fermentation when oxygen is low. Anaerobic respiration ends with fermentation.

Aerobic respiration continues after glycolysis with pyruvate oxidation. This step converts pyruvate into acetyl-CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle. The citric acid cycle uses several redox reactions to release the bond energy of acetyl-CoA and produces ATP, NADH, and FADH2.

The final stage is oxidative phosphorylation, which makes most of the ATP. NADH and FADH2 pass electrons through the electron transport chain. The chain releases energy that pumps protons, creating a gradient that drives ATP synthesis. For most organisms, aerobic respiration produces much more ATP than anaerobic respiration.

Cellular Respiration: ATP Production Steps

cellular-respiration-atp-production-steps

what is glycolysis?

Glycolysis: How Cells Break Down Glucose

Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration and a key way cells break down glucose to make energy. Cellular respiration converts food energy from macromolecules into ATP, the cell’s main energy currency. Glycolysis also creates intermediate molecules that can feed into other pathways. In this pathway, one six-carbon sugar such as glucose is split into two three-carbon molecules, including pyruvate. The process produces a net gain of two ATP molecules, since four ATP are made and two...

energy-requiring steps of glycolysis

Glycolysis: Glucose Trapping and Splitting

Glycolysis begins in the cytosol, where glucose is prepared for use as energy. This process has two phases: an energy-requiring phase and an energy-releasing phase. The first phase changes glucose into a more reactive, unstable form before it can move into later steps. In the first step, glucose is phosphorylated, which means a phosphate group is added from ATP. This produces glucose 6-phosphate. The added phosphate is negatively charged, so it cannot cross the hydrophobic cell membrane. As a...

energy-releasing steps of glycolysis

Glycolysis: ATP and NADH Formation

Glycolysis produces ATP and NADH during its energy-releasing phase. These reactions are the last steps of glycolysis and convert glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, or G3P, into pyruvate. The phase is often described as steps 6 to 10, and it happens twice because two 3-carbon sugars are made earlier in glycolysis. The sixth step begins with two linked events. G3P is oxidized, which means it loses hydrogen, and it is phosphorylated, which means a phosphate group is added. NAD+ acts as the electron...

pyruvate oxidation

How Pyruvate Becomes Acetyl CoA

Pyruvate is prepared for the next stage of cellular respiration inside the mitochondria. After glycolysis, the charged pyruvate molecules enter the mitochondria by active transport. There, they go through three enzymatic reactions so the energy stored in pyruvate can be used by the cell. First, pyruvate dehydrogenase removes the carboxyl group from pyruvate. This step releases carbon dioxide. Next, the stripped molecule is oxidized, and the electrons are picked up by NAD+ to make NADH. The...

the citric acid cycle

Citric Acid Cycle Energy and Products

The citric acid cycle is a key energy-making pathway in cells. It is also called the Krebs cycle or the TCA cycle. In eukaryotic cells, it takes place in the matrix of mitochondria. In prokaryotic cells, it occurs in the cytoplasm. The cycle starts with acetyl CoA, which enters the pathway after pyruvate oxidation. That earlier step makes two acetyl CoA molecules per glucose molecule. For that reason, the citric acid cycle runs twice for each glucose molecule. The pathway includes eight...

electron transport chains

ATP Production by the Electron Transport Chain

ATP production in the electron transport chain is the final stage of cellular respiration. This stage is part of oxidative phosphorylation, which has two steps: the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis. In eukaryotic cells, the electron transport chain sits in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Its main job is to build a proton gradient. That gradient is then used during chemiosmosis to make ATP. The process also regenerates the electron carriers NAD+ and FAD, which are needed again in...

chemiosmosis

ATP Production by Chemiosmosis

ATP production by chemiosmosis is part of oxidative phosphorylation, the efficient stage of cellular respiration that makes most of the cell’s ATP. Oxidative phosphorylation includes two linked processes: the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis. Together, they help generate adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, the main energy molecule used by cells. The electron transport chain is a series of protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane. These complexes pass electrons through a set...

electron carriers

Electron Carriers in Cellular Respiration

Electron carriers help move electrons through cellular respiration. They act like shuttles that can accept electrons, which means they are reduced, or give electrons away, which means they are oxidized. This changing between oxidized and reduced forms is essential for energy production. As glucose breaks down into carbon dioxide and water, it loses electrons at several stages. Electron carriers pick up those electrons and store them temporarily. They then release the electrons into the...

fermentation

Fermentation Pathways Without Oxygen

Fermentation is a metabolic pathway that lets cells make energy without oxygen. It begins after glucose is split into two pyruvate molecules during glycolysis. Glycolysis is the same first step used in aerobic respiration. When oxygen is unavailable, pyruvate does not enter aerobic respiration. Instead, cells convert pyruvate into other organic molecules through pathways that depend on the organism. A key purpose of fermentation is to regenerate NAD+ from NADH so glycolysis can keep running. <br...

dietary connections

How Food Becomes ATP

Food becomes ATP through connected steps in cellular respiration. Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids all feed into these pathways. The body can use foods such as apples, cheese, and guacamole as sources of energy. Carbohydrate digestion starts with enzymes that break complex carbohydrates into simple sugars. Glucose can enter glycolysis directly. Fructose and galactose must first be converted into sugars that are intermediates of the glycolytic pathway. Proteins are digested into amino acids.

introduction to cellular respiration

Cellular respiration is the process cells use to turn energy from food into ATP. ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, stores energy in chemical bonds that can be released quickly when cells need it. Much of the energy released during respiration becomes heat, but some of it is captured to make ATP. This process depends on oxidation-reduction, or redox, reactions. In these reactions, oxidation means electron loss and reduction means electron gain. The electron carriers NAD+ and FAD, along with their...

products of the citric acid cycle

Citric Acid Cycle Output in Cellular Respiration

The citric acid cycle is a key stage of aerobic respiration in cells. It is also called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Plants and animals use this oxygen-requiring pathway as part of cellular respiration. This cycle happens after glycolysis and pyruvate oxidation. Glycolysis makes two pyruvate molecules from each glucose molecule. During pyruvate oxidation, each pyruvate becomes acetyl-CoA, which is the input for the citric acid cycle. That means one glucose molecule...

outcomes of glycolysis

Glycolysis Products in Cellular Respiration

Glycolysis is the first step of cellular respiration and breaks glucose into smaller molecules. Cells use this process to pull energy from glucose over a series of chemical reactions. Cellular respiration can happen with oxygen or without oxygen. In both aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration, glycolysis makes a net gain of two pyruvate molecules, two NADH molecules, and two ATP molecules. Four ATP molecules are produced, but two ATP molecules are used earlier in the pathway. Glycolysis...

atp yield

How Cellular Respiration Makes ATP

Cellular respiration makes ATP from glucose in several stages. The process usually produces 30 to 32 ATP per glucose molecule. Most of that ATP comes from oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport chain, while 4 ATP are made earlier, with 2 from glycolysis and 2 from the citric acid cycle. The electron transport chain, or ETC, sits in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It has four main protein complexes and ATP synthase, the enzyme that makes ATP. NADH and FADH2 deliver electrons to...

key terms and concepts

Learn how cells make ATP through glycolysis, fermentation, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation in aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

Cellular Respiration: ATP Production Steps | JoVE K12

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biology

3.1.9-12.J

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

Life Sciences

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules To Organisms: Structures And Processes

HS-LS1-7

ecosystems-interactions-energy-and-dynamics

Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy And Dynamics

HS-LS2-1

Environmental Science

HS-LS2-4

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

Cells

Cellular processes

Tennessee Academic Standards

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

BIO1.LS1.9

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

BIO.2

BIO.2.e

LS.4

LS.4.b

Minnesota Academic Standards in Science

3.1.1 9L.3.1.1.3

3.2.1 9L.3.2.1.1

new-jersey-student-learning-standards-for-science

New Jersey Student Learning Standards for Science

Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics

HS-LS2-5

Arizona Science Standards

HS.L2

HS.L2U1.21

Alabama Course of Study Science

9-12.B.1.1

9-12.B.1.5

Next Generation Science Standards

HS-LS2-3

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.L.18

SC.912.L.18.8

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

BIO.11

BIO.11.A

south-carolina-college-and-career-ready-science-standards

South Carolina College and Career Ready Science Standards

B-LS1-7.

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

HS-LS1-7.

Georgia Standards of Excellence

Botany

SBO1.

Respiration

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Cellular Respiration: ATP Production Steps

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