Name: how cellular respiration makes atp
Uploaded: 2019-08-01T09:24:07.000Z
Duration: 1 min 31 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

Life Science

LS.4

LS.4.b

ATP Yield

في التنفس الخلوي،العائد من 30-32 جزيئات ATP هي النتيجة لإنتاج تدريجي من جزيئات الطاقة العالية،اثنين ATP واثنين NADH في تحلل الكليكوز،اثنين NADH في أكسدة البيروفات،اثنين ATP،ستة NADH،واثنين من FADH2 في دورة حامض الستريك،وحوالي 26 أو 28 ATP في الفسفرة المؤكسدة. هذا النطاق من ATP تقريبي لثلاثة أسباب. أولاًلأن ناقلات الإلكترون NADH و FADH2 تنتج ATP بشكل غير مباشر بالتسبب في ضخ أيونات الهيدروجين في الفضاء بين الغشاء،إنها تُشكل الكسور النظرية ل ATP،2.5 و1.5 ATP على التوالي.ثانياًNADH المنتج في تحلل الكليكوز لا يمكن أن يمر من خلال غشاء الميتوكوندريا وبالتالي يجب أن تمر إلكترونات الطاقة العالية لناقلات الإلكترون الأخرى داخل الميتوكوندريا. واعتمادًا على نوع الخلية،إنتاج FADH2 أو NADH يسفر عنه إما 1.5 أو 2.5 ATP لكل منهما. ثالثًا،يتم استخدام الطاقة الناتجة عن التنفس أيضًا لبدأ أنشطة أخرى مثل نقل البيروفات من خلال غشاء الميتوكوندريا الذي يسفر عنه حوالي 30 أو 32 ATP.

عائد atp

ينتج التنفس الخلوي ٣٠-٣٢ جزيء أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات لكل جزيء جلوكوز. على الرغم من أن معظم أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات ينتج عن الفسفرة المؤكسدة وسلسلة نقل الإلكترون (ETC) ، يتم اكتساب ٤ أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات مسبقاً (٢ من تحلل السكر و ٢ من دورة حمض الستريك).

يتم تضمين سلسلة نقل الإلكترون في غشاء الميتوكوندريا الداخلي ويتكون من أربعة معقدات بروتينية رئيسية و سينثيز أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات. يقوم NADH و FADH2 بتمرير الإلكترونات إلى هذه المجمعات ، والتي بدورها تضخ البروتونات في الفضاء بين الغشاء. هذا التوزيع للبروتونات يولد تدرج تركيز عبر الغشاء. يؤدي التدرج إلى إنتاج أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات عندما تتدفق البروتونات مرة أخرى إلى مصفوفة الميتوكوندريا عبر سينثيز أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات.

مقابل كل إلكترونين مُدخَلين يمررهما NADH إلى المركب I ، يضخ كل من المركبين I و III ٤ بروتونات ويضخ المركب IV بروتونان ، بإجمالي ١٠ بروتونات. لا يشارك المركب II في سلسلة الإلكترون التي بدأها NADH. ومع ذلك ، فإن FADH2 يمرر إلكترونين إلى المركب II ، لذلك يتم ضخ ما مجموعه ٦ بروتونات لكل FADH2 ؛ ٤ بروتونات عبر المركب III و ٢ عبر المركب IV.

هناك حاجة إلى أربعة بروتونات لتخليق ١ أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات. نظراً لأنه يتم ضخ ١٠ بروتونات لكل NADH ، فإن ١ NADH ينتج ٢,٥ (١٠\٤) أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات. يتم ضخ ستة بروتونات لكل FADH2 ، لذا فإن ١ FADH2 ينتج ١,٥ (٦\٤) أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات.

ينتج التنفس الخلوي بحد أقصى ١٠ NADH و ٢ FADH2 لكل جزيء جلوكوز. نظراً لأن NADH واحد ينتج ٢,٥ أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات و FADH2 واحد ينتج ١,٥ أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات ، يتبع ذلك إنتاج ٢٥ أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات + ٣ أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات بواسطة الفسفرة المؤكسدة. يتم إنتاج أربعة أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات قبل الفسفرة المؤكسدة ، والتي تنتج ٣٢ أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات كحد أقصى لكل جزيء جلوكوز.

الأهم من ذلك ، يحدث تحلل السكر في العصارة الخلوية وتقع سلسلة نقل الإلكترون في الميتوكوندريا (في حقيقيات النوى). غشاء الميتوكوندريا غير منفذ لـ NADH ، وبالتالي فإن إلكترونات ٢ NADH التي يتم إنتاجها بواسطة تحلل السكر تحتاج إلى نقلها إلى الميتوكوندريا. بمجرد دخول الميتوكوندريا ، يمكن تمرير الإلكترونات إلى NAD+ أو FAD. بالنظر إلى إنتاجية أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات المختلفة اعتماداً على حامل الإلكترون ، فإن العائد الكلي للتنفس الخلوي هو ٣٠ إلى ٣٢ أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات لكل جزيء جلوكوز.

عائد ATP

ينتج التنفس الخلوي 30-32 ATP لكل جزيء جلوكوز. على الرغم من أن معظم ATP ينتج عن الفسفرة المؤكسدة ونقل الإلكترون ...

Education

JoVE Core

Biology

علم الأحياء

Cellular Processes

العمليات الخلوية

Cellular Respiration

التنفس الخلوي

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

المصطلحات والمفاهيم الأساسية

how cellular respiration makes atp

Cellular respiration makes ATP from glucose in several stages. The process usually produces 30 to 32 ATP per glucose molecule. Most of that ATP comes from oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport chain, while 4 ATP are made earlier, with 2 from glycolysis and 2 from the citric acid cycle.

The electron transport chain, or ETC, sits in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It has four main protein complexes and ATP synthase, the enzyme that makes ATP. NADH and FADH2 deliver electrons to these complexes. As electrons move through the chain, the complexes pump protons into the intermembrane space and build a gradient across the membrane.

That proton gradient powers ATP production. Protons flow back into the mitochondrial matrix through ATP synthase, and this flow drives ATP formation. For every 2 electrons that NADH sends through complex I, 10 protons are pumped in total. Complex I and complex III each pump 4 protons, and complex IV pumps 2 protons. Complex II is not part of the electron chain started by NADH.

FADH2 follows a different path. It passes 2 electrons to complex II, so a total of 6 protons are pumped per FADH2. In this case, complex III pumps 4 protons and complex IV pumps 2 protons. Four protons are needed to make 1 ATP. That means 1 NADH yields 2.5 ATP, and 1 FADH2 yields 1.5 ATP.

Per glucose molecule, cellular respiration can produce up to 10 NADH and 2 FADH2. Since each NADH makes 2.5 ATP and each FADH2 makes 1.5 ATP, oxidative phosphorylation produces 25 ATP from NADH and 3 ATP from FADH2. Adding the 4 ATP made before that stage gives a maximum of 32 ATP per glucose molecule. In eukaryotes, glycolysis happens in the cytosol, and the ETC is in the mitochondria.

The mitochondrial membrane does not let NADH cross. Because of that, the electrons from the 2 NADH made in glycolysis must be shuttled into the mitochondria. Once inside, those electrons may be passed to NAD+ or FAD. Since the shuttle path can change the carrier used, the total ATP yield of cellular respiration is usually 30 to 32 ATP per glucose molecule.

How Cellular Respiration Makes ATP

what is glycolysis?

Glycolysis: How Cells Break Down Glucose

Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration and a key way cells break down glucose to make energy. Cellular respiration converts food energy from macromolecules into ATP, the cell’s main energy currency. Glycolysis also creates intermediate molecules that can feed into other pathways. In this pathway, one six-carbon sugar such as glucose is split into two three-carbon molecules, including pyruvate. The process produces a net gain of two ATP molecules, since four ATP are made and two...

energy-requiring steps of glycolysis

Glycolysis: Glucose Trapping and Splitting

Glycolysis begins in the cytosol, where glucose is prepared for use as energy. This process has two phases: an energy-requiring phase and an energy-releasing phase. The first phase changes glucose into a more reactive, unstable form before it can move into later steps. In the first step, glucose is phosphorylated, which means a phosphate group is added from ATP. This produces glucose 6-phosphate. The added phosphate is negatively charged, so it cannot cross the hydrophobic cell membrane. As a...

energy-releasing steps of glycolysis

Glycolysis: ATP and NADH Formation

Glycolysis produces ATP and NADH during its energy-releasing phase. These reactions are the last steps of glycolysis and convert glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, or G3P, into pyruvate. The phase is often described as steps 6 to 10, and it happens twice because two 3-carbon sugars are made earlier in glycolysis. The sixth step begins with two linked events. G3P is oxidized, which means it loses hydrogen, and it is phosphorylated, which means a phosphate group is added. NAD+ acts as the electron...

pyruvate oxidation

How Pyruvate Becomes Acetyl CoA

Pyruvate is prepared for the next stage of cellular respiration inside the mitochondria. After glycolysis, the charged pyruvate molecules enter the mitochondria by active transport. There, they go through three enzymatic reactions so the energy stored in pyruvate can be used by the cell. First, pyruvate dehydrogenase removes the carboxyl group from pyruvate. This step releases carbon dioxide. Next, the stripped molecule is oxidized, and the electrons are picked up by NAD+ to make NADH. The...

the citric acid cycle

Citric Acid Cycle Energy and Products

The citric acid cycle is a key energy-making pathway in cells. It is also called the Krebs cycle or the TCA cycle. In eukaryotic cells, it takes place in the matrix of mitochondria. In prokaryotic cells, it occurs in the cytoplasm. The cycle starts with acetyl CoA, which enters the pathway after pyruvate oxidation. That earlier step makes two acetyl CoA molecules per glucose molecule. For that reason, the citric acid cycle runs twice for each glucose molecule. The pathway includes eight...

electron transport chains

ATP Production by the Electron Transport Chain

ATP production in the electron transport chain is the final stage of cellular respiration. This stage is part of oxidative phosphorylation, which has two steps: the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis. In eukaryotic cells, the electron transport chain sits in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Its main job is to build a proton gradient. That gradient is then used during chemiosmosis to make ATP. The process also regenerates the electron carriers NAD+ and FAD, which are needed again in...

chemiosmosis

ATP Production by Chemiosmosis

ATP production by chemiosmosis is part of oxidative phosphorylation, the efficient stage of cellular respiration that makes most of the cell’s ATP. Oxidative phosphorylation includes two linked processes: the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis. Together, they help generate adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, the main energy molecule used by cells. The electron transport chain is a series of protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane. These complexes pass electrons through a set...

electron carriers

Electron Carriers in Cellular Respiration

Electron carriers help move electrons through cellular respiration. They act like shuttles that can accept electrons, which means they are reduced, or give electrons away, which means they are oxidized. This changing between oxidized and reduced forms is essential for energy production. As glucose breaks down into carbon dioxide and water, it loses electrons at several stages. Electron carriers pick up those electrons and store them temporarily. They then release the electrons into the...

fermentation

Fermentation Pathways Without Oxygen

Fermentation is a metabolic pathway that lets cells make energy without oxygen. It begins after glucose is split into two pyruvate molecules during glycolysis. Glycolysis is the same first step used in aerobic respiration. When oxygen is unavailable, pyruvate does not enter aerobic respiration. Instead, cells convert pyruvate into other organic molecules through pathways that depend on the organism. A key purpose of fermentation is to regenerate NAD+ from NADH so glycolysis can keep running. <br...

dietary connections

How Food Becomes ATP

Food becomes ATP through connected steps in cellular respiration. Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids all feed into these pathways. The body can use foods such as apples, cheese, and guacamole as sources of energy. Carbohydrate digestion starts with enzymes that break complex carbohydrates into simple sugars. Glucose can enter glycolysis directly. Fructose and galactose must first be converted into sugars that are intermediates of the glycolytic pathway. Proteins are digested into amino acids.

introduction to cellular respiration

Cellular Respiration: ATP Production Steps

Cellular respiration is the process cells use to turn energy from food into ATP. ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, stores energy in chemical bonds that can be released quickly when cells need it. Much of the energy released during respiration becomes heat, but some of it is captured to make ATP. This process depends on oxidation-reduction, or redox, reactions. In these reactions, oxidation means electron loss and reduction means electron gain. The electron carriers NAD+ and FAD, along with their...

products of the citric acid cycle

Citric Acid Cycle Output in Cellular Respiration

The citric acid cycle is a key stage of aerobic respiration in cells. It is also called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Plants and animals use this oxygen-requiring pathway as part of cellular respiration. This cycle happens after glycolysis and pyruvate oxidation. Glycolysis makes two pyruvate molecules from each glucose molecule. During pyruvate oxidation, each pyruvate becomes acetyl-CoA, which is the input for the citric acid cycle. That means one glucose molecule...

outcomes of glycolysis

Glycolysis Products in Cellular Respiration

Glycolysis is the first step of cellular respiration and breaks glucose into smaller molecules. Cells use this process to pull energy from glucose over a series of chemical reactions. Cellular respiration can happen with oxygen or without oxygen. In both aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration, glycolysis makes a net gain of two pyruvate molecules, two NADH molecules, and two ATP molecules. Four ATP molecules are produced, but two ATP molecules are used earlier in the pathway. Glycolysis...

atp yield

Cellular respiration makes ATP from glucose in several stages. The process usually produces 30 to 32 ATP per glucose molecule. Most of that ATP comes from oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport chain, while 4 ATP are made earlier, with 2 from glycolysis and 2 from the citric acid cycle. The electron transport chain, or ETC, sits in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It has four main protein complexes and ATP synthase, the enzyme that makes ATP. NADH and FADH2 deliver electrons to...

key terms and concepts

See how cellular respiration turns glucose into ATP through glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain, for a total of 30 to 32 ATP.

How Cellular Respiration Makes ATP | JoVE K12

JoVE Core series brings biology to life through over 300 concise and easy-to-understand animated video lessons that explain key concepts in biology, plus more than 150 scientist-in-action videos that show actual research experiments conducted in today’s laboratories.

biology

Next Generation Science Standards

High School

ecosystems-interactions-energy-and-dynamics

Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics

HS-LS2-5

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.L.18

SC.912.L.18.5

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

BIO.11

BIO.11.A

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

matter-and-energy-in-organisms-and-ecosystems

Matter and Energy in Organisms and Ecosystems

HS-LS1-7.

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

HS-LS1-7

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LS.4.a

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How Cellular Respiration Makes ATP

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