Name: redox reactions and half-reaction balancing
Uploaded: 2020-09-24T15:06:52.000Z
Duration: 2 min 58 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

NC K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Physical Science

Matter and its Interactions

PS.PSc.2.3

Balancing Redox Equations

كيف تزوّد البطارية كهرباء لتشغيل الأجهزة المحمولة؟لماذا يتحول لون حبة أفوكادو إلى البني بعد قطعها،أو لماذا يصدأ المعدن تحت الماء؟يُحرّك هذه العمليات أنواع محددة من التفاعلات الكيميائية،يتخللها انتقال إلكترون من ذرة إلى أخرى. الذرة التي تفقد إلكترونات تتأكسد،بينما الذرة التي تكتسب إلكترونات تُختزل. هذه التفاعلات تُسمى تفاعلات تأكسد واختزال،وتمتاز بتغيرات في حالة الأكسدة لواحد أو أكثر من المواد المتفاعلة.تفاعل المغنيسيوم مع حمض الهيدروكلوريك المركز مثال على تفاعل تأكسد واختزال. هنا يتأكسد المغنيسيوم ليصبح أيونات مغنيسيوم 2،وتُختزل البروتونات لتصبح غاز هيدروجين. المعادلات الكيميائية البسيطة يمكن موازنتها بسهولة.لكن بما أن معظم معادلات التأكسد والاختزال معقدة،لا بد من تبرير عدد الإلكترونات التي تُفقد والتي تُكتسب. عند موازنة معادلات تأكسد واختزال،من الضروري مراعاة قانون بقاء المادة. لا بد من موازنة كمية كل عنصر وفقدان أو اكتساب أية إلكترونات على طرفي التفاعل،بالتالي،إذا اختُزلت إحدى المواد المتفاعلة،يجب أن تتأكسد مادة أخرى.تُستخدم طريقة نصف-تفاعل لموازنة تفاعلات التأكسد والاختزال بنجاح. لنتأمل تفاعل البيرمنغنات مع الأكسالات. في المحاليل المائية الحمضية،عيّنوا حالات الأكسدة وقسّموا التفاعل إلى نصفي-تفاعل لمكوناته.ثم وازنوا كل نصف تفاعل بحذف الهيدروجين والأكسجين. هنا،المنغنيز متوازن أساسًا،أما الأكسالات فيحتاج إلى مُعامل 2؛في الخطوة الثانية،وازنوا ذرات الأكسجين بإضافة جزيئات الماء،وثالثًا،وازنوا ذرات الهيدروجين بإضافة بروتونات،أينما كانت لازمة. وازنوا الشحنات بإضافة إلكترونات.بما أنا المنغنيز مُختزَل،يُضاف خمسة إلكترونات على طرف المواد المتفاعلة. في المقابل،الأكسالات تأكسدت،بالتالي يُضاف إلكترونان اثنان على طرف النواتج. اضربوا نصفي التفاعل في عدد صحيح ليتساوى عدد الإلكترونات المضافة.أخيرًا،أضيفوا ثم بسّطوا نصفي المعادلة المتوازنين بحذف الحدود المتشابهة في كلا الطرفين للحصول على معادلة تأكسد واختزال موزونة. في المحاليل المائية القاعدية،العملية متشابهة لكنها تشتمل على خطوة إضافية واحدة. يُضاف هنا عدد متساوٍمن أيونات الهيدروكسيل،على طرفي معادلة التفاعل،لتحييد البروتونات،قبل تجميع نصفي المعادلة الموزونين.

موازنة معادلات أكسدة-اختزال

الكيمياء الكهربائية هي العلم المتضمن في التحويل البيني للتفاعلات الكهربائية والكيميائية. تسمى هذه التفاعلات الأكسدة الاختزالية ، أو تفاعلات الأكسدة والاختزال. يتم تحديد هذه التفاعلات المهمة من خلال التغيرات في حالات الأكسدة لعنصر واحد أو أكثر من العناصر المتفاعلة وتتضمن مجموعة فرعية من التفاعلات التي تنطوي على نقل الإلكترونات بين الأنواع المتفاعلة. تطورت الكيمياء الكهربائية كمجال لإعطاء رؤى كافية حول المبادئ الأساسية لكيمياء الأكسدة والاختزال والتقنيات المتعددة التي تتراوح من العمليات المعدنية على نطاق صناعي إلى البطاريات القوية والقابلة لإعادة الشحن للمركبات الكهربائية. نظرًا لأن التفاعلات التي تنطوي على نقل الإلكترونات ضرورية لدراسة الكيمياء الكهربية ، تتضمن مراجعة موجزة لكيمياء الأكسدة والاختزال ما يلي. أرقام الأكسدة بحكم التعريف ، يتضمن تفاعل الأكسدة والاختزال تغييرًا إما في رقم الأكسدة أو حالة الأكسدة لمتفاعل واحد أو أكثر. رقم الأكسدة لعنصر ما هو تقييم لكيفية اختلاف البيئة الإلكترونية لذراته مقارنة بذرات العنصر النقي. وفقًا لهذا التعريف ، تحمل الذرة في عنصر عدد أكسدة صفر. بالنسبة للذرة ، فإن عدد الأكسدة يساوي شحنة الذرة في المركب إذا كان المركب أيونيًا. وبالتالي ، فإن مجموع أعداد الأكسدة لجميع الذرات في الجزيء يساوي شحنة الجزيء. المركبات الأيونية المركبات الأيونية البسيطة هي أبسط الأمثلة على هذه الشكلية لأن العناصر لها أعداد أكسدة مساوية لشحناتها الأيونية. يتكون كلوريد الصوديوم ، NaCl ، من كاتيونات Na + وأنيونات Cl & # 8722؛ ، مع أرقام أكسدة للصوديوم والكلور هي +1 و & # 8722 ؛ 1 ، على التوالى. فلوريد الكالسيوم ، CaF 2 ، يتكون من Ca 2+ الكاتيونات و F & # 8722؛ الأنيونات ، مع عدد أكسدة الكالسيوم والفلور ، +2 ، و & # 8722 ؛ 1. المركبات التساهمية تعتبر المركبات التساهمية أكثر صعوبة في استخدام الشكليات. الماء عبارة عن مركب تساهمي يتكون من ذرتين من H مرتبطة بذرة O عبر روابط تساهمية قطبية O & # 8722 ؛ H. تنجذب الإلكترونات المشتركة التي تصنع رابطة O & # 8722 ؛ H بقوة أكبر إلى ذرة O الكهربية. لذلك يكتسب الأكسجين شحنة سالبة جزئية ، مقارنة بذرة O في عنصر الأكسجين. نتيجة لذلك ، تُظهر ذرات H في جزيء الماء شحنة موجبة جزئية مقارنة بذرات الهيدروجين في غاز الهيدروجين. مجموع الشحنات الجزئية السالبة والموجبة لكل جزيء ماء يساوي صفرًا ، مما يجعل جزيء الماء متعادلًا. إذا كان استقطاب الإلكترونات المشتركة داخل روابط الماء O & # 8722 ؛ H كاملة & # 8212 ؛ ستكون النتيجة النقل الكامل للإلكترونات من H إلى O ، وسيكون الماء مركبًا أيونيًا يتكون من O 2 & # 8722؛ الأنيونات و H + الكاتيونات. وهكذا ، فإن أعداد أكسدة الأكسجين والهيدروجين في الماء هي & # 8722 ؛ 2 و +1 ، على التوالي. يؤدي تطبيق هذا المنطق نفسه على رابع كلوريد الكربون ، CCl 4 ، إلى إنتاج عدد أكسدة +4 للكربون و & # 8722 ؛ 1 للكلور. في أيون النترات ، NO 3 & # 8722؛ ، يكون رقم الأكسدة للنيتروجين هو +5 ورقم الأكسجين للأكسجين هو & # 8722 ؛ 2 ، فيجمع يساوي & # 8722 ؛ 1 شحنة على الجزيء: <img alt = "Eq1" src = "/ files / ftp_upload / 11432 / 11432_Equation_1.png" style = "text-align: center؛ height: 70px؛" /> موازنة معادلات الأكسدة والاختزال تصف المعادلة غير المتوازنة الموضحة أدناه تحلل كلوريد الصوديوم: <img alt = "Eq2" src = "/ files / ftp_upload / 11432 / 11432_Equation_2.png" style = "text-align: center؛ height: 48px؛" /> يطابق هذا التفاعل معيار تفاعل الأكسدة والاختزال ، حيث ينخفض عدد أكسدة Na من +1 إلى 0 (من خلال الخضوع لـ تقليل ) ويزيد ذلك بالنسبة لـ Cl من & # 8722 ؛ 1 إلى 0 (من خلال الخضوع لـ الأكسدة ). يمكن موازنة حالة المعادلة بسهولة عن طريق إضافة معامل القياس المتكافئ 2 لكل من NaCl و Na: 
 <img alt = "Eq3" src = "/ files / ftp_upload / 11432 / 11432_Equation_3.png" style = "text-align: center ؛ height: 48px ؛" /> تحدث تفاعلات الأكسدة والاختزال التي تحدث في المحاليل المائية بشكل شائع في الكيمياء الكهربية ، ويشتمل العديد منها على الماء أو أيوناته ، H + ( aq ) و OH & # 8722 ؛ ( aq ) ، إما كمواد متفاعلة أو منتجات. في هذه الحالات ، يمكن أن تكون المعادلات التي تمثل تفاعلات الأكسدة والاختزال صعبة للغاية لتحقيق التوازن عن طريق الفحص فقط ، كما أن استخدام نهج منظم يعرف باسم طريقة نصف التفاعل مفيد. يتضمن هذا النهج الخطوات التالية: <ol><li> قسِّم المعادلة إلى مكوناتها المؤكسدة الهيكلية وتفاعلات أنصاف الاختزال. </li><li> وازن كل نصف رد فعل لجميع العناصر باستثناء O و H. </li><li> وازن كل نصف تفاعل لذرات O بإضافة جزيئات الماء حسب الحاجة في المعادلة. </li><li> وازن كل نصف تفاعل لذرات H بإضافة البروتونات كما هو مطلوب للمعادلة. </li><li> أخيرًا ، قم بموازنة الشحنات على العناصر بإضافة الإلكترونات حسب الحاجة. </li><li> اضرب نصف التفاعلات بأي عدد صحيح لازم لمعادلة عدد الإلكترونات المفقودة في تفاعل نصف الأكسدة مع عدد الإلكترونات المكتسبة في تفاعل نصف الاختزال. </li><li> أضف كلًا من أنصاف التفاعلات وتبسيطها أكثر من خلال حذف الأنواع الشائعة على جانبي المعادلة. </li><li> إذا حدث التفاعل في وسط قلوي ، أضف OH & # 8722؛ أيونات المعادلة التي تم الحصول عليها في الخطوة 7 لتحييد البروتونات (مضافة بأعداد متساوية إلى كلا طرفي المعادلة) وتبسيطها. </li><li> افحص المعادلة للتأكد من أن الشحنات على الذرات متوازنة. </li></ol>هذا النص مقتبس من  <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/17-1-review-of-redox-chemistry">Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Chapter 17: Introduction,</a> and <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/17-1-review-of-redox-chemistry">Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section17.2: Review of Redox Chemistry</a>.

الكيمياء الكهربائية هي العلم الذي يشارك في التحويل البيني للتفاعلات الكهربائية والكيميائية. تسمى هذه التفاعلات أكسدة الاختزال ، أو ...

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Electrochemistry

الكيمياء الكهربائية

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

المصطلحات والمفاهيم الأساسية

redox reactions and half-reaction balancing

Redox reactions involve electron transfer and changes in oxidation number. In electrochemistry, these reactions connect chemical changes with electrical energy. They also power technologies such as industrial metal processing and rechargeable batteries used in electric vehicles.

Oxidation number is a way to track how an atom's electronic environment changes compared with the pure element, where the oxidation number is zero. For a simple ionic compound, the oxidation number matches the ion charge. Sodium chloride has Na at +1 and Cl at -1, and calcium fluoride has Ca at +2 and F at -1.

Covalent compounds need a closer look because electrons are shared. In water, the O-H bonds are polar, so oxygen pulls shared electrons more strongly than hydrogen does. That gives oxygen an oxidation number of -2 and hydrogen +1. The same idea gives carbon +4 and chlorine -1 in carbon tetrachloride, and nitrogen +5 with oxygen -2 in the nitrate ion, which adds up to the ion's -1 charge.

A simple redox example is the decomposition of sodium chloride. Sodium changes from +1 to 0, so it is reduced. Chlorine changes from -1 to 0, so it is oxidized. The equation is balanced by placing a coefficient of 2 in front of NaCl and Na.

Redox reactions in aqueous solution are often harder to balance because water, H+ ions, or OH- ions can appear as reactants or products. A systematic half-reaction method helps. First, split the equation into oxidation and reduction half-reactions. Then balance all elements except O and H, add water for oxygen, add protons for hydrogen, and add electrons to balance charge. After that, multiply the half-reactions so the electrons lost and gained are equal, add them together, and cancel species that appear on both sides.

If the reaction occurs in an alkaline medium, add OH- ions to neutralize the protons and simplify the equation. Finish by checking that both atoms and charge are balanced. This method gives a clear path for balancing redox equations in electrochemistry.

Redox Reactions and Half-Reaction Balancing

redox-reactions-and-half-reaction-balancing

balancing redox equations

Redox reactions involve electron transfer and changes in oxidation number. In electrochemistry, these reactions connect chemical changes with electrical energy. They also power technologies such as industrial metal processing and rechargeable batteries used in electric vehicles. Oxidation number is a way to track how an atom's electronic environment changes compared with the pure element, where the oxidation number is zero. For a simple ionic compound, the oxidation number matches the ion...

electromotive force

Cell Voltage and Electron Flow

Electric current is the flow of electric charge through a conducting medium or a solution. In wires, that charge is carried by electrons. In some solutions, ions can also move and carry charge. When electrons move through a wire, they produce an electric current. This idea connects to redox reactions, where electrons are lost and gained. In the spontaneous reaction between zinc and copper ions, zinc is oxidized to zinc ions. Copper ions are reduced to solid copper. Even so, this direct...

voltaic/galvanic cells

Galvanic Cells and Battery Reactions

Galvanic cells use spontaneous redox reactions to produce electric current. A common example is a disposable AA battery, which powers devices by turning chemical energy into electrical energy. Another example is a copper wire placed in silver nitrate solution, where the solution slowly turns bright blue and a grey solid forms on the wire. In the copper and silver reaction, copper is oxidized and silver ions are reduced. Copper forms cuprous ions, which give the solution its blue color. At the...

standard electrode potentials

Using Electrode Potentials to Predict Reactions

Electrode potentials help predict whether a redox reaction will happen on its own. A redox reaction involves electron transfer. In electrochemistry, the measured value is called cell potential or cell voltage. It shows the energy linked to charge transfer and is measured in volts, where 1 volt equals 1 joule per coulomb. A single half-cell cannot be measured by itself because electron transfer needs both a donor and a receiver. For that reason, scientists measure the difference between two...

cell potential and free energy

Redox Cell Potential, ΔG°, and K

Redox cell potential connects chemical energy, free energy change, and the equilibrium constant in an electrochemical cell. In these reactions, chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. That link helps predict whether a reaction is spontaneous and how far it may proceed. Thermodynamics is the study of how heat and other forms of energy are related. In an electrochemical cell, cell potential can also reflect oxidizing strength or reducing strength. A similar idea appears in acid-base...

the nernst equation

Cell Potential Under Changing Conditions

Cell potential changes when a redox reaction does not run at standard conditions. Standard cell potentials connect with standard free energy change, ΔG°, and the equilibrium constant K, but those relationships only hold at 1 M concentration, 298 K, and 1 atmosphere. A zinc(II) and tin(II) redox cell with E°cell = +0.291 V and ΔG° = −56.2 kJ is spontaneous under those standard conditions. As a cell discharges, the reactant concentration changes and the cell potential steadily drops. Many redox...

concentration cells

Cell Potential from Concentration Differences

Concentration cells are voltaic cells that use two almost identical half-cells. The half-cells use the same electrode and the same half-reaction. They differ only in the concentration of one redox species, so the cell potential depends on that concentration difference. In a concentration cell, the Nernst equation can be used to find the cell potential. For the zinc example shown, the calculated cell potential is positive. A positive cell potential means the overall reaction is spontaneous. <br...

batteries and fuel cells

Primary, Rechargeable Batteries and Fuel Cells

Batteries and fuel cells are galvanic cells that supply electrical power for many applications. They range from tiny button batteries in wristwatches to large systems that can provide backup energy to municipal power grids. Some are primary cells, which are single-use and cannot be recharged. Others are secondary cells, which use reversible reactions and can be charged again by an external power source. A common primary battery is the dry cell. It uses zinc as both the container and the anode,...

corrosion

Rusting and Metal Protection

Corrosion is the natural breakdown of metals through electrochemical reactions. It can appear as rust on iron, tarnish on silver, or a blue-green patina on copper. In each case, the metal is oxidized. Some corrosion products can protect the surface, while others keep damaging the metal. Rusting is the harmful type of corrosion seen in iron. It happens when iron is exposed to oxygen and water. A galvanic cell forms on the iron surface, and this drives oxidation at the anodic region and...

electrolysis

Electrolysis in Batteries and Metal Production

Electrolysis uses electrical energy to drive a nonspontaneous redox reaction. In a galvanic cell, a spontaneous redox reaction does electrical work on the surroundings by sending electrons through an external circuit. In electrolysis, an external circuit does work on the redox system by applying a voltage large enough to force the reaction in the opposite direction. This process is used in several real-world settings. Recharging a battery is one example, because an outside power source drives...

key terms and concepts

Learn how oxidation numbers, redox changes, and the half-reaction method help balance redox equations in aqueous and alkaline solutions.

Redox Reactions and Half-Reaction Balancing | JoVE K12

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Matter and Its Interactions

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balancing-chemical-equations-and-reaction-outcomes

Balancing Chemical Equations and Reaction Outcomes

Classifying Matter by State

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is all around us; the air, ...

Classifying Matter by Composition

Matter: Pure Substances and Mixtures
According to its composition, the matter can be classified into two broad categories &mdash; pure substances and ...

Elements: Chemical Symbols and Isotopes

A chemical symbol is an abbreviation used to indicate an element or an atom of an element. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg. The same symbol is ...

Molecules and Compounds

Atoms and Molecules

Everything in the universe is made up of matter, and matter is composed of a combination of elements. An atom is the smallest unit of ...

Solution Formation

There is no one solvent that can dissolve every type of solute. Some substances that readily dissolve in a certain solvent might be insoluble in a ...

Colloids

Children at play often make suspensions such as mixtures of mud and water, flour and water, or a suspension of solid pigments in water known as tempera ...

Construct an explanation to classify matter as a pure substance or mixture; homogeneous or heterogeneous; element or compound; solution, colloid or suspension.

PS.PSc.1.1

Phase Transitions

Whether solid, liquid, or gas, a substance&#39;s state depends on the order and arrangement of its particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). Particles in the ...

phase-transitions-vaporization-and-condensation

Phase Transitions: Vaporization and Condensation

The physical form of a substance changes on changing its temperature. For example, raising the temperature of a liquid causes the liquid to vaporize ...

Vapor Pressure

When a liquid vaporizes in a closed container, gas molecules cannot escape. As these gas phase molecules move randomly about, they will occasionally ...

Clausius-Clapeyron Equation

The equilibrium between a liquid and its vapor depends on the temperature of the system; a rise in temperature causes a corresponding rise in the vapor ...

Phase Transitions: Melting and Freezing

Heating a crystalline solid increases the average energy of its atoms, molecules, or ions, and the solid gets hotter. At some point, the added energy ...

phase-transitions-sublimation-and-deposition

Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and ...

Heating and Cooling Curves

When a substance&#8212;isolated from its environment&#8212;is subjected to heat changes, corresponding changes in temperature and phase of the substance ...

Phase Diagrams

A phase diagram combines plots of pressure versus temperature for the liquid-gas, solid-liquid, and solid-gas phase-transition equilibria of a substance. ...

Use models to compare the phases of matter and the physical changes they undergo.

PS.PSc.1.2

physical-and-chemical-properties-of-matter

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

The characteristics that enable us to distinguish one substance from another are called properties.

Physical Properties of Matter

A physical property is ...

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Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

Particles in a solid are tightly packed together (fixed shape) and often arranged in a regular pattern; in a liquid, they are close together with no ...

Intermolecular vs Intramolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces (IMF) are electrostatic attractions arising from charge-charge interactions between molecules. The strength of the intermolecular ...

Intermolecular Forces

Atoms and molecules interact through bonds (or forces): intramolecular and intermolecular. The forces are electrostatic as they arise from interactions ...

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Comparing Intermolecular Forces: Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Miscibility

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that exist between molecules. They dictate several bulk properties, such as melting points, boiling points, ...

Carry out investigations to compare physical and chemical properties of matter.

PS.PSc.1.3

The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

Subatomic Particles

Dalton was only partially correct about the particles that make up matter. All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of three smaller ...

The Bohr Model

Following the work of Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues in the early twentieth century, the picture of atoms consisting of tiny dense nuclei surrounded ...

Emission Spectra

When solids, liquids, or condensed gases are heated sufficiently, they radiate some of the excess energy as light. Photons produced in this manner have a ...

The de Broglie Wavelength

In the macroscopic world, objects that are large enough to be seen by the naked eye follow the rules of classical physics. A billiard ball moving on a ...

The Uncertainty Principle

Werner Heisenberg considered the limits of how accurately one can measure properties of an electron or other microscopic particles. He determined that ...

Use models to interpret the data presented in Bohr diagrams and electron dot diagrams for neutral atoms of elements 1 through 18.

PS.PSc.1.4

Ions and Ionic Charges

In ordinary chemical reactions, the nucleus &mdash; which contains the protons and neutrons of each atom and thus identifies the element &mdash; remains ...

Use models to compare representations of atoms, ions, and isotopes.

PS.PSc.1.5

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

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Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

Ionization Energy

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Alkali Metals

Group 1 elements are soft and shiny metallic solids. They are malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. The melting points of the ...

Halogens

Group 17 elements, known as halogens, are nonmetals. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine a solid. ...

Noble Gases


The elements in group 18 are noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon). They earned the name &ldquo;noble&rdquo; because they were ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties (metallic/nonmetallic character, ionic charge, and reactivity) and arrangement of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

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Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert&#xA0;N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and ...

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence ...

Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

Compared to ionic bonds, which results from the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms, covalent bonds result from the mutual ...

Bonding in Metals

Metallic bonds are formed between two metal atoms. A simplified model to describe metallic bonding has been developed by Paul Dr&#xFC;de called the ...

Construct an explanation to classify the type of chemical bond that occurs (covalent, ionic, or metallic) in a given substance.

PS.PSc.2.1

Nomenclature of Alkanes

In the late 19th-century, the number of new chemical compounds discovered increased tremendously. Hence, the necessity arose to develop a naming system ...

Nomenclature of Alkenes

The IUPAC naming system for alkenes replaces -an- with -en- in the corresponding parent alkanes. Accordingly, a simple alkene replaces the -ane suffix of ...

Nomenclature of Alkynes

Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons characterized by the presence of carbon-carbon triple bonds and have a general formula CnH2n-2. The nomenclature of ...

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Structure and Nomenclature of Alcohols and Phenols

Overview 
Alcohols are one of the most important functional groups in organic chemistry. The name of alcohol comes from the hydrocarbon from which it is ...

Structure and Nomenclature of Ethers

Structure and Bonding
Ethers are organic compounds with an ether functional group which is characterized by an oxygen atom connected to two &#8212; ...

IUPAC Nomenclature of Aldehydes

Aldehydes are named based on the systematic nomenclature rules set by the IUPAC. For acyclic aldehydes, the longest carbon chain containing the aldehydic ...

IUPAC Nomenclature of Ketones

Like aldehydes, ketones are named using IUPAC rules; in this case, by replacing &#8220;e&#8221; in the name of the longest hydrocarbon chain with ...

IUPAC Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids

IUPAC names of carboxylic acids are systematically derived following a few rules discussed below.
For acyclic saturated monocarboxylic acids, the longest ...

Use models to apply International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) conventions to name and write formulas for simple compounds.

PS.PSc.2.2

Understand types, properties, and structure of matter.

Redox Reactions and Half-Reaction Balancing

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