Name: primary, rechargeable batteries and fuel cells
Uploaded: 2020-09-24T15:06:52.000Z
Duration: 3 min 12 s
Channel: JoVE

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Batteries and Fuel Cells

Batteries are voltaic cells used as portable electrical sources. They are categorized into primary, or non-rechargeable, and secondary, or rechargeable, batteries.
The common primary battery is the dry cell. It contains a zinc case as the anode and a graphite cathode immersed in a moist, acidic electrolyte paste of manganese(IV) oxide and ammonium chloride. 
The zinc oxidizes to zinc chloride, and manganese(IV) oxide reduces to solid manganese(III) oxide, generating a potential of 1.5 volts. When operated, the electrodes get depleted, making dry cells single-use batteries.
Alkaline batteries are similar but use an alkaline electrolyte, extending their shelf and working lives.
Lead-acid batteries are secondary batteries predominantly used in automobiles. These typically have six electrochemical cells connected in series, generating a total potential of 12 volts. Each cell has a lead anode and a lead oxide cathode immersed in sulfuric acid. 
During discharge, the redox reactions deposit solid lead sulfate on both electrodes, which are converted back during recharging by using an external power source.
Nickel&#8211;cadmium rechargeable batteries contain a nickel oxyhydroxide cathode, a cadmium anode, and a potassium hydroxide electrolyte. When operated, the anode oxidizes to solid cadmium hydroxide, and the cathode reduces to solid nickel hydroxide, generating a cell potential of 1.3 volts. 
However, cadmium&#8217;s toxicity drives the replacement of nickel&#8211;cadmium batteries by eco-friendly nickel&#8211;metal hydride batteries. Here, the cathode remains the same, but the anode is a hydrogen-absorbing alloy. The anodic reaction involves the formation of water from hydrogen. 
Lithium&#8211;ion batteries are the newest secondary batteries. Lightweight lithium metal makes these batteries portable with high energy density. 
A lithium&#8211;ion battery contains a lithiated graphite anode and a lithium&#8211;transition metal oxide cathode. When charged, the transition metal is oxidized, while lithium ions are incorporated between the anodic graphite layers. Upon discharge, lithium ions flow from the anode to the cathode, generating a potential of 3.7 volts. 
Lastly, fuel cells are voltaic cells that require a continuous external supply of redox reactants for energy production. 
A typical hydrogen fuel cell uses hydrogen and oxygen from the air to generate a current while emitting water. Graphite electrodes contain platinum-based catalysts to accelerate the redox reaction.

batteries and fuel cells

A battery is a galvanic cell that is used as a source of electrical power for specific applications. Modern batteries exist in a multitude of forms to accommodate various applications, from tiny button batteries such as those that power wristwatches to the very large batteries used to supply backup energy to municipal power grids. Some batteries are designed for single-use applications and cannot be recharged (primary cells), while others are based on conveniently reversible cell reactions that allow recharging by an external power source (secondary cells).
Single-Use (Primary) Batteries
A dry-cell is a common primary battery that uses zinc as both the container and anode (&#8220;&#8211;&#8221; terminal) and a graphite rod as the cathode (&#8220;+&#8221; terminal). The Zn can is filled with an electrolyte paste containing manganese(IV) oxide, zinc(II) chloride, ammonium chloride, and water. A graphite rod is immersed in the electrolyte paste to complete the cell. The spontaneous cell reaction involves:
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The voltage (cell potential) of a dry cell is approximately 1.5 V (Ecell ~ 1.5 V). Dry cells are available in various sizes (e.g., D, C, AA, AAA). All sizes of dry cells comprise the same components and exhibit the same voltage, but larger cells contain greater amounts of the redox reactants and therefore are capable of transferring correspondingly greater amounts of charge. Like other galvanic cells, dry cells may be connected in series to yield batteries with greater voltage outputs, if needed. 
Alkaline batteries were designed around the same redox couples as the dry cell. As their name suggests, these types of batteries use alkaline electrolytes, often potassium hydroxide. The reactions are
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An alkaline battery can deliver about three to five times the energy of a dry cell of similar size (Ecell = +1.43 V). Alkaline batteries are prone to leaking potassium hydroxide, so they should be removed from devices for long-term storage. While some alkaline batteries are rechargeable, most are not.
Rechargeable (Secondary) Batteries
Nickel-cadmium, or NiCd, batteries consist of a nickel-plated cathode, cadmium-plated anode, and a potassium hydroxide electrode. The positive and negative plates, which are prevented from shorting by the separator, are rolled together and put into the case. This design allows the NiCd cell to deliver much more current than a similar-sized alkaline battery. The reactions are
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When properly treated, a NiCd battery can be recharged about 1000 times ( Ecell ~ 1.3 V). Cadmium is a toxic heavy metal, so NiCd batteries should never be ruptured or incinerated, and they should be disposed of in accordance with relevant toxic waste guidelines.
Lithium-ion batteries are among the most popular rechargeable batteries and are used in many portable electronic devices. The reactions are
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The variable stoichiometry of the cell reaction leads to variation in cell voltages, but for typical conditions, x is usually no more than 0.5,and the cell voltage is approximately 3.7 V (Ecell ~ 3.7). Lithium batteries are popular because they can provide a large amount of current, are lighter than comparable batteries of other types, produce a nearly constant voltage as they discharge, and only slowly lose their charge when stored.
The lead-acid battery is also a type of secondary battery commonly used in automobiles. It is inexpensive and capable of producing the high current required by automobile starter motors. The reactions for a lead-acid battery are
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Each cell produces 2 V (Ecell ~ 2 V), so six cells are connected in series to produce a 12-V car battery. Lead-acid batteries are heavy and contain a caustic liquid electrolyte, H2SO4 (aq), but are often still the battery of choice because of their high current density. Since these batteries contain a significant amount of lead, they must always be disposed of properly.
Fuel Cells
A fuel cell is a galvanic cell that uses traditional combustive fuels, most often hydrogen or methane, that are continuously fed into the cell along with an oxidant. Within the cell, fuel and oxidant undergo the same redox chemistry as when they are combusted, but via a catalyzed electrochemical that is significantly more efficient. For example, a typical hydrogen fuel cell uses graphite electrodes embedded with platinum-based catalysts to accelerate the two half-cell reactions:
<img alt="Lewis structure diagram, static equilibrium, ammonia molecule NH3, valence electrons, chemical bonding." src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_6.png" style="text-align: center; height: 130px;" data-altupdatedat="1761830439000" data-alt="Eq6" />
These types of fuel cells generally produce voltages of approximately 1.23 V (Ecell ~ 1.23 V). Compared to an internal combustion engine, the energy efficiency of a fuel cell using the same redox reaction is typically more than double (~20%&#8211;25% for an engine versus ~50%&#8211;75% for a fuel cell). Hydrogen fuel cells are commonly used on extended space missions, and prototypes for personal vehicles have been developed.
This text is adapted from <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/17-5-batteries-and-fuel-cells">Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 17.5: Batteries, and Fuel Cells.</a>

A battery is a galvanic cell that is used as a source of electrical power for specific applications. Modern batteries exist in a multitude of forms to ...

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primary, rechargeable batteries and fuel cells

Batteries and fuel cells are galvanic cells that supply electrical power for many applications. They range from tiny button batteries in wristwatches to large systems that can provide backup energy to municipal power grids. Some are primary cells, which are single-use and cannot be recharged. Others are secondary cells, which use reversible reactions and can be charged again by an external power source.

A common primary battery is the dry cell. It uses zinc as both the container and the anode, or negative terminal, and a graphite rod as the cathode, or positive terminal. The zinc can holds an electrolyte paste with manganese(IV) oxide, zinc(II) chloride, ammonium chloride, and water. A dry cell has a voltage of about 1.5 V. It comes in sizes such as D, C, AA, and AAA. These sizes use the same parts and the same voltage, but larger cells contain more reactants and can transfer more charge. Dry cells can also be connected in series to increase voltage.

Alkaline batteries use the same redox couples as dry cells, but they use an alkaline electrolyte, often potassium hydroxide. They can deliver about three to five times the energy of a dry cell of similar size and have a cell potential of about 1.43 V. These batteries can leak potassium hydroxide, so they should be removed from devices during long-term storage. Some alkaline batteries are rechargeable, but most are not.

Rechargeable batteries include nickel-cadmium, or NiCd, batteries, lithium-ion batteries, and lead-acid batteries. A NiCd battery has a nickel-plated cathode, a cadmium-plated anode, and a potassium hydroxide electrode. The positive and negative plates are rolled together with a separator to keep them from shorting. This design lets a NiCd cell deliver much more current than a similar-sized alkaline battery. When treated properly, it can be recharged about 1000 times, and its cell potential is about 1.3 V. Cadmium is toxic, so NiCd batteries should not be ruptured or burned and must be disposed of as toxic waste.

Lithium-ion batteries are widely used in portable electronic devices. Their reaction has variable stoichiometry, so the voltage can vary, but under typical conditions the cell potential is about 3.7 V. These batteries are popular because they can provide a large amount of current, are lighter than comparable batteries of other types, and keep a nearly constant voltage as they discharge. They also lose charge slowly during storage. Lead-acid batteries are common in automobiles. They are inexpensive and can deliver the high current needed by starter motors. Each cell produces 2 V, so six cells are connected in series to make a 12-V car battery. These batteries are heavy and contain a caustic sulfuric acid electrolyte, and they also contain a significant amount of lead, so they must be disposed of properly.

A fuel cell is also a galvanic cell, but it uses a fuel that is continuously fed into the cell along with an oxidant. The fuel is often hydrogen or methane. Inside the cell, the same redox chemistry that occurs in combustion is carried out by a catalyzed electrochemical process that is much more efficient. A typical hydrogen fuel cell uses graphite electrodes with platinum-based catalysts to speed the half-cell reactions. These fuel cells usually produce about 1.23 V. Compared with an internal combustion engine, a fuel cell using the same redox reaction is typically more than twice as efficient. Hydrogen fuel cells are used on extended space missions, and prototypes for personal vehicles have been developed.

Primary, Rechargeable Batteries and Fuel Cells

primary-rechargeable-batteries-and-fuel-cells

balancing redox equations

Redox Reactions and Half-Reaction Balancing

Redox reactions involve electron transfer and changes in oxidation number. In electrochemistry, these reactions connect chemical changes with electrical energy. They also power technologies such as industrial metal processing and rechargeable batteries used in electric vehicles. Oxidation number is a way to track how an atom's electronic environment changes compared with the pure element, where the oxidation number is zero. For a simple ionic compound, the oxidation number matches the ion...

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Cell Voltage and Electron Flow

Electric current is the flow of electric charge through a conducting medium or a solution. In wires, that charge is carried by electrons. In some solutions, ions can also move and carry charge. When electrons move through a wire, they produce an electric current. This idea connects to redox reactions, where electrons are lost and gained. In the spontaneous reaction between zinc and copper ions, zinc is oxidized to zinc ions. Copper ions are reduced to solid copper. Even so, this direct...

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Galvanic Cells and Battery Reactions

Galvanic cells use spontaneous redox reactions to produce electric current. A common example is a disposable AA battery, which powers devices by turning chemical energy into electrical energy. Another example is a copper wire placed in silver nitrate solution, where the solution slowly turns bright blue and a grey solid forms on the wire. In the copper and silver reaction, copper is oxidized and silver ions are reduced. Copper forms cuprous ions, which give the solution its blue color. At the...

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Redox Cell Potential, ΔG°, and K

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Cell Potential from Concentration Differences

Concentration cells are voltaic cells that use two almost identical half-cells. The half-cells use the same electrode and the same half-reaction. They differ only in the concentration of one redox species, so the cell potential depends on that concentration difference. In a concentration cell, the Nernst equation can be used to find the cell potential. For the zinc example shown, the calculated cell potential is positive. A positive cell potential means the overall reaction is spontaneous. <br...

Batteries and fuel cells are galvanic cells that supply electrical power for many applications. They range from tiny button batteries in wristwatches to large systems that can provide backup energy to municipal power grids. Some are primary cells, which are single-use and cannot be recharged. Others are secondary cells, which use reversible reactions and can be charged again by an external power source. A common primary battery is the dry cell. It uses zinc as both the container and the anode,...

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Corrosion is the natural breakdown of metals through electrochemical reactions. It can appear as rust on iron, tarnish on silver, or a blue-green patina on copper. In each case, the metal is oxidized. Some corrosion products can protect the surface, while others keep damaging the metal. Rusting is the harmful type of corrosion seen in iron. It happens when iron is exposed to oxygen and water. A galvanic cell forms on the iron surface, and this drives oxidation at the anodic region and...

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Electrolysis in Batteries and Metal Production

Electrolysis uses electrical energy to drive a nonspontaneous redox reaction. In a galvanic cell, a spontaneous redox reaction does electrical work on the surroundings by sending electrons through an external circuit. In electrolysis, an external circuit does work on the redox system by applying a voltage large enough to force the reaction in the opposite direction. This process is used in several real-world settings. Recharging a battery is one example, because an outside power source drives...

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Explore dry cells, alkaline batteries, NiCd, lithium-ion, and lead-acid batteries, plus how hydrogen fuel cells turn fuel into electricity more efficiently.

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Primary, Rechargeable Batteries and Fuel Cells

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