Name: enzyme function, cofactors, and inhibitors
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T10:09:27.000Z
Duration: 1 min 22 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Biology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms- Structures and Processes

LS.Bio.1.2

Introduction to Enzymes

الإنزيمات هي محفزات بيولوجية تسرع معدلات التفاعل دون أن يتم استهلاكها. عادة ما تكون بروتينات موجودة في السيتوبلازم وداخل العضيات وفي أغشية الخلية أو العضية.
قد تعمل الإنزيمات داخل الخلايا أو يمكن إفرازها خارج الخلية. تتطلب معظم الإنزيمات درجة حرارة محددة ودرجة حموضة للعمل بأقصى كفاءة.
الركائز هي المواد المتفاعلة التي ترتبط على وجه التحديد بالمواقع النشطة ، والمناطق الصغيرة على الإنزيم حيث يحدث التفاعل. توفر الأجزاء المتبقية من الإنزيم بنية للإنزيم أو تتفاعل مع جزيئات أخرى لتعزيز التفاعل أو تثبيطه.
تغير الإنزيمات شكلها لربط ركائزها وتحفيز تحويل الركائز إلى منتجات. بعد التفاعل ، يطلق الإنزيم المنتج ويعود إلى شكله الأصلي ، مما يسمح للإنزيم بتحفيز جولات إضافية من التفاعل.
تعمل بعض الإنزيمات فقط عندما ترتبط بالعوامل المساعدة ، والتي تساعد على تفاعل محفز بالإنزيم. تعمل الجزيئات غير البروتينية مثل الفيتامينات أو أيونات المعادن أو ATP كعوامل مساعدة لمختلف الإنزيمات.

<ol>
	<li>هيكمان ، سي إم ، وباراديسي ، ف. (2020). إذا نظرنا إلى الوراء: تاريخ قصير لاكتشاف الإنزيمات وكيف أصبحت أدوات كيميائية قوية. ChemCatChem ، 12 (24) ، 6082-6102.</li>
	<li>نيلسون ، دي إل وكوكس ، إم إم ، مبادئ الكيمياء الحيوية ، الطبعة الخامسة ، دبليو إتش فريمان وشركاه.</li>
</ol>

مقدمة في الإنزيمات

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يعود تاريخ استخدام الإنزيمات من قبل البشر إلى حدود سبع آلاف سنة قبل الميلاد. استخدم البشر الإنزيمات لأول مرة لتخمير السكريات وإنتاج الكحول دون أن يعوا أن الإنزيمات هي من تحفز تلك التفاعلات. صاغ فيلهلم كوهني مصطلح "الإنزيم" في عام 1877 من الكلمات اليونانية "en" التي تعني "في" أو "داخل" و"zyme" التي تعني "الخميرة".

معظم الإنزيمات عبارة عن بروتينات تعمل على تسريع التفاعلات الكيميائية الحيوية دون استهلاكها. و هي تحتوي على واحد أو أكثر من المواقع النشطة التي تربط الركائز وتحولها إلى منتجات. تحتوي العديد من الإنزيمات أيضًا على مواقع تفارغية، وهي مواقع إضافية حيث ترتبط جزيئات أخرى غير الركائز لتنشيط الإنزيم أو تثبيطه.

كما تتطلب بعض الإنزيمات وجود عوامل مساعدة – أيونات معدنية أو جزيئات عضوية للتحفيز. ترتبط هذه العوامل المساعدة بالموقع النشط للإنزيم وتساعد في تحويل الركائز إلى منتجات. الإنزيم الذي لا يحتوي على عامل مساعد يسمى إنزيما خالصا أو صميم الإنزيم (آبو إنزيم بالإنجليزية)، ويصبح اسمه إنزيمًا وظيفيا (هولوإنزيم بالإنجليزية) بمجرد ربطه بعامل مساعد. العامل المساعد إذا كان جزءا عضويا يصبح اسمه إنزيما مساعدا. معظم الإنزيمات المساعدة مشتقة من الفيتامينات.

المثبطات هي جزيئات توقف التفاعل المحفز بالإنزيم. تشبه المثبطات التنافسية جزيئات الركيزة وتتنافس معها للارتباط بالمواقع النشطة. في المقابل، ترتبط المثبطات غير التنافسية بالمواقع التفارغية وتغير شكل الإنزيم لتقليل ارتباط الركيزة به.

</div>

يعود استخدام الإنزيمات من قبل البشر إلى 7000 قبل الميلاد. استخدم البشر لأول مرة الإنزيمات لتخمير السكريات وإنتاج الكحول دون أن يعرفوا أن هذا كان ...

Education

JoVE Core

Cell Biology

بيولوجيا الخلية

Unit 1

الوحدة الأولى

Energy and Catalysis

الطاقة والتحفيز

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

المصطلحات والمفاهيم الأساسية

enzyme function, cofactors, and inhibitors

Enzymes are proteins that speed up biochemical reactions without being used up. Humans have used enzymes since about 7000 BCE, when they fermented sugars to make alcohol without knowing the reaction was enzyme-catalyzed. The word enzyme was coined by Wilhelm Kuhne in 1877. It comes from the Greek words en, meaning “in” or “within,” and zyme, meaning “yeast.”

Enzymes work through active sites, which are regions that bind substrates and help convert them into products. Many enzymes also have allosteric sites. These are extra binding sites where molecules other than substrates can attach and either activate or inhibit the enzyme.

Some enzymes need cofactors to carry out catalysis. Cofactors are metal ions or organic molecules that bind to the active site and help the reaction happen. An enzyme without its cofactor is called an apoenzyme. When the cofactor is attached, it becomes a holoenzyme. An organic cofactor is called a coenzyme, and most coenzymes are derived from vitamins.

Enzyme activity can also be blocked by inhibitors. Competitive inhibitors are similar to the substrate and compete for the active site. Non-competitive inhibitors bind to allosteric sites instead. This changes the enzyme’s shape and reduces substrate binding.

Enzyme Function, Cofactors, and Inhibitors

the first law of thermodynamics

Energy Changes in Cells and Matter

The first law of thermodynamics describes how energy changes form in the universe. The total amount of energy stays constant. Energy can move from one place to another or change into a different form, but it cannot be created or destroyed. These energy changes happen in everyday life. A light bulb changes electrical energy into light energy. A gas stove changes chemical energy in natural gas into heat energy. Plants also carry out a major energy transformation when they convert sunlight energy...

the second law of thermodynamics

Entropy and Spontaneous Change

Entropy helps predict whether a process will happen on its own. Entropy is a measure of randomness or disorder in a system. High entropy means high disorder and low energy. A student’s bedroom is a simple example. If no work is done, the room becomes messy over time. That messy state is highly disordered and has high entropy. To make the room clean again, energy must be added as the student puts things away. That organized state has low entropy. Processes that increase the entropy of the...

enthalpy within the cell

Cellular Enthalpy and Energy Changes

Cellular enthalpy describes how heat and energy change during chemical and physical processes. Enthalpy is written as H and is defined as the sum of a system’s internal energy, U, and the product of pressure and volume, PV. It is a state function, which means its value depends on the state of the system, not the path taken. Scientists cannot measure the enthalpy of a single substance directly. They can determine enthalpy changes, or ΔH, for a process instead. For reactions or changes that...

entropy within the cell

Cell Energy Loss and Entropy

Cell energy loss and entropy explain why living things need constant energy input. Cells obtain energy, transform it, and use it to do work, but these transfers are never completely efficient. In each transfer, some energy is lost in a form that cannot be used. In many cases, that lost energy is heat energy.

an introduction to free energy

Gibbs Free Energy and Reaction Work

Gibbs free energy describes the usable energy in a chemical reaction. It helps scientists compare how much energy different reactions release. This measurement is called Gibbs free energy, or G, after Josiah Willard Gibbs. The second law of thermodynamics explains why not all energy stays available for work. Some energy is lost in an unusable form, such as heat, and this loss increases entropy. Gibbs free energy is the energy left after that entropy loss is taken into account. Every chemical...

endergonic and exergonic reactions in the cell

endergonic-and-exergonic-reactions-in-the-cell

Cell Reactions That Release or Store Energy

Cell reactions can either release energy or store it for later use. In chemistry, this difference is described by the value of ΔG, or free energy change. When energy is released during a reaction, ΔG is negative. The products then have less free energy than the reactants because some free energy has been given off. Reactions with a negative ΔG are called exergonic reactions. Exergonic means energy is leaving the system. These reactions are also called spontaneous reactions because they can...

the equilibrium binding constant and binding strength

the-equilibrium-binding-constant-and-binding-strength

How Equilibrium Binding Constant Affects Binding

The equilibrium binding constant describes how strongly two molecules bind at equilibrium. It is a useful way to compare binding strength in molecular interactions. This topic focuses on how binding is measured and what the equilibrium binding constant means. A higher value indicates stronger binding, while a lower value indicates weaker binding. Understanding this constant helps explain how tightly molecules stay together under equilibrium conditions. The page also connects the binding...

free energy and equilibrium

Free Energy and Reaction Direction

Free energy and reaction direction are linked in chemical equilibrium. A free energy change, ΔG, shows the driving force for a process. When ΔG is negative, the process is driven forward. When ΔG is positive, the reverse direction is favored. When ΔG is zero, the forward and reverse driving forces are equal, and the system is at equilibrium. The reaction quotient, Q, helps show how close a system is to equilibrium. Q is the numerical value of the mass action expression for the system. It can...

non-equilibrium in the cell

Cells Stay Out of Equilibrium

Cells stay out of chemical equilibrium by constantly using energy and moving materials in and out. Chemical reactions in metabolism are often reversible. They can go in both directions. In one direction, they release energy to the surroundings. In the reverse direction, they absorb energy. The same idea applies to reactions that build and break down cell molecules. Proteins, for example, can be broken into individual amino acids, and amino acids can be used to build proteins again. In a closed...

oxidation and reduction of organic molecules

oxidation-and-reduction-of-organic-molecules

Electron Carriers in Cell Energy Transfer

Cell energy production depends on redox reactions, which are oxidation and reduction reactions that happen together. In oxidation, an electron is removed from an atom in a compound. In reduction, that same electron is added to another compound. Because these reactions usually occur as a pair, they are called redox reactions. When a molecule loses an electron, its potential energy goes down. The electron does not stay free in the cytoplasm. Instead, it moves to a second compound and reduces...

introduction to enzymes

Enzymes are proteins that speed up biochemical reactions without being used up. Humans have used enzymes since about 7000 BCE, when they fermented sugars to make alcohol without knowing the reaction was enzyme-catalyzed. The word enzyme was coined by Wilhelm Kuhne in 1877. It comes from the Greek words en, meaning “in” or “within,” and zyme, meaning “yeast.” Enzymes work through active sites, which are regions that bind substrates and help convert them into products. Many enzymes also have...

enzymes and activation energy

How Enzymes Lower Reaction Energy

Enzymes lower the energy needed for a chemical reaction to begin. That starting energy is called activation energy, or free energy of activation, and it is often written as Ea. During a reaction, bonds break and new bonds form. In glucose breakdown, for example, bonds between carbon atoms break and release energy because they are energy-storing bonds. Before a reaction can move forward, reactant molecules must reach a high-energy, unstable shape called the transition state. To get there, the...

introduction to enzyme kinetics

Graphing Enzyme Kinetics Data

Enzyme kinetics uses graphs to show how fast a biochemical reaction happens. Scientists measure the initial reaction rate, or velocity (Vo), at different substrate concentrations ([S]). They may also run trials with inhibitors or other molecules that change the reaction rate. The results are often plotted as Vo against [S]. For many single-substrate reactions, the data fits the Michaelis-Menten equation. This equation, named after Leonor Michaelis and Maud Menten, helps estimate the maximum...

turnover number and catalytic efficiency

How Fast Enzymes Work in Digestion

Enzymes can work at very different speeds, and their turnover number shows how fast they convert substrate molecules into products. Turnover number is the maximum number of substrate molecules an enzyme can transform per unit time. For most enzymes, this value is between 1 and 1000 molecules per second. Some enzymes are especially fast. Catalase has the highest known turnover number and can convert up to 2.8×10^6 molecules of hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen each second. Lysozyme has...

catalytically perfect enzymes

Diffusion-Controlled Enzymes and Reaction Speed

Catalytically perfect enzymes are enzymes that speed up biochemical reactions at very high rates. The idea was first proposed by W. J. Albery and J. R. Knowles in 1976. These enzymes have catalytic efficiency values of about 10^8 to 10^9 M^-1 s^-1 and are also called diffusion-controlled enzymes because diffusion of the substrate into the active site is the only rate-limiting step. Examples of catalytically perfect enzymes include triose phosphate isomerase, fumarase, and superoxide dismutase.

introduction to mechanisms of enzyme catalysis

introduction-to-mechanisms-of-enzyme-catalysis

How Enzymes Change Shape to Catalyze

Enzyme catalysis depends on how enzymes bind substrates and how the active site responds during the reaction. Scientists once described this process with a simple lock-and-key model, where the enzyme and substrate fit together in one instant. Research now supports induced fit, a more dynamic model in which binding causes a small change in the enzyme’s shape. That shift helps create an ideal match between the enzyme and the substrate’s transition state, which improves catalysis. The active site...

ligand binding and linkage

Ligand Binding and Allosteric Effects

Ligand binding and linkage describe how one molecule can affect another when it binds to a protein. In this topic, the focus is on how binding at one site can influence activity at a different site on the same protein. This idea is important for understanding protein function in high school biology. It helps explain why some proteins respond more strongly after a ligand attaches. The transcript centers on the connection between ligand binding and linkage, which is a key concept in molecular...

cooperative allosteric transitions

How Proteins Shift Shape Together

Proteins can change shape in a coordinated way during allosteric transitions. In a cooperative transition, one part of the protein affects another part, so the change spreads through the molecule. These shape changes help proteins switch between different states. The shift can influence how the protein works and how it responds to other molecules. Cooperative allosteric transitions are an important idea in protein function. They explain how a small change at one site can lead to a larger...

ribozymes

Catalytic RNA: Ribozymes in Action

Ribozymes are RNA molecules that can act as enzymes. They help speed up specific chemical reactions without being protein enzymes. This makes them an important example of RNA with more than one job in the cell. Some ribozymes can cut RNA molecules, and others can join them together. This shows that RNA can do catalytic work as well as carry genetic information. Ribozymes are a key part of how scientists think about the many roles of RNA in biology. One well-known ribozyme is ribonuclease P,...

atp energy storage and release

ATP Powers Cellular Transport and Reactions

ATP powers cellular transport and many reactions by transferring energy through phosphorylation. ATP is a highly unstable molecule. If it is not used quickly, it breaks down into ADP and inorganic phosphate, and the released energy is lost as heat. Cells use ATP through energy coupling. This means the exergonic reaction of ATP hydrolysis is linked to an endergonic reaction so the reaction can move forward. One major example is the sodium-potassium pump, a transmembrane ion pump that is vital...

atp and macromolecule synthesis

ATP in Building Cell Macromolecules

ATP helps cells build biological macromolecules. These organic compounds are mainly made of carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and small amounts of other elements. The four major classes of biological macromolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Most macromolecules start as small subunits called monomers. Cells join monomers with covalent bonds to make larger molecules called polymers. This building process needs energy, so cells depend on ATP, the...

coupled reactions

ATP Powers Cellular Work

ATP powers many kinds of cellular work by coupling energy-releasing reactions to energy-requiring ones. Some reactions happen on their own and release energy. Others need an energy input to move forward. Cells link these reactions so important processes can still occur. Adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, stores energy that cells can use quickly. ATP hydrolysis is the breaking of ATP, and it releases energy. Cells often use that released energy to drive endergonic reactions, which are reactions...

key terms and concepts

Explore how enzymes speed reactions, how cofactors help them work, and how competitive and non-competitive inhibitors can slow enzyme activity.

Enzyme Function, Cofactors, and Inhibitors | JoVE K12

cell biology

JoVE Core Cell Biology illustrates complex cellular processes in easy-to-understand yet comprehensive animated video lessons. This collection focuses on the essential components and functions of cells, including organelles and membranes, cellular transport, and cell energetics. It is complemented by scientist-in-action videos that demonstrate the application of cell biology in real-world research experiments.

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

BIO.2

BIO.2.c

Chemistry

CH.7

CH.7.f

Florida Department of Education

High School

Life Science

SC.912.L.18

SC.912.L.18.4

SC.912.L.18.11

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

BIO.11

BIO.11.B

Compounds Essential to Human Function

The human body is composed of cells that are fundamentally made up of several different molecules. These molecules are essential to carry out all ...

Macromolecules

Biomolecules
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Solution Preparation
ExpandCAUTION: It is important to always use care when handling reagents. For example, iodine will stain clothes and skin so wear ...

Identifying Macromolecules with Indicator Solutions
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Carbohydrate Metabolism

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What are Lipids?

lipid-derived-compounds-in-the-human-body

Lipid-derived Compounds in the Human Body

Fats and lipids are crucial components in the human body. Some lipid-derived compounds, such as fat-soluble vitamins, eicosanoids, lipoproteins, and ...

Fats as Energy Storage Molecules

What are Proteins?

Protein Organization

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Protein Denaturation

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Nucleic Acids and Nucleotides

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Nucleic Acid Structure

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ATP Energy Storage and Release

ATP and Macromolecule Synthesis

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Construct an explanation to illustrate relationships between structure and function of major macromolecules essential for life.

LS.Bio.1.1

The use of enzymes by humans dates to 7000 BCE. Humans first used enzymes to ferment sugars and produce alcohol without knowing that this was an ...

Enzymes and Activation Energy

The activation energy (or free energy of activation), abbreviated as Ea, is the small amount of energy input necessary for all chemical reactions to ...

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Enzyme kinetics studies the rates of biochemical reactions. Scientists monitor the reaction rates for a particular enzymatic reaction at various substrate ...

Turnover Number and Catalytic Efficiency

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Introduction to Mechanisms of Enzyme Catalysis

For many years, scientists thought that enzyme-substrate binding took place in a simple &#34;lock-and-key&#34; fashion. This model stated that the enzyme ...

Ligand Binding and Linkage

Cooperative Allosteric Transitions

Ribozymes

Carry out investigations to illustrate how enzymes act as catalysts for biochemical reactions and how environmental factors affect enzyme activity.

What are Cells?

Cells are the smallest and basic units of life, whether it is a single cell that forms the entire organism, e.g., in a bacterium or trillions of them, ...

Cell Size

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Eukaryotic Compartmentalization

One of the distinguishing features of eukaryotic cells is that they contain membrane-bound organelles, such as the nucleus and mitochondria, that carry ...

Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotes are small unicellular organisms that include the domains&#x2014;Archaea and Bacteria. Bacteria include many common organisms, such as ...

Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm consists of organelles and a framework of protein scaffolds called the cytoskeleton suspended in an aqueous solution, the cytosol. The ...

The Nucleus

The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that acts as a control center in a eukaryotic cell. It contains chromosomal DNA, which controls gene expression ...

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Endoplasmic ReticulumThe endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an extensive network of membranous sacs and tubules in eukaryotic cells, continuous with the outer ...

Ribosomes

Ribosomes translate genetic information encoded by messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes. Cells that ...

Golgi Apparatus

As they leave the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), properly folded and assembled proteins are selectively packaged into vesicles. These vesicles are ...

Lysosomes

Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed spherical sacs derived from the Golgi apparatus. The most important function of the lysosome is degrading macromolecules ...

Peroxisomes

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Introduction to the Cytoskeleton

Overview of the Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments present within the cell, having three distinct filaments ...

Introduction to Actin

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Cell Structure

Background
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overview-of-myosin-structure-and-function

Overview of Myosin Structure and Function

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Use models to explain how the structure of organelles determines its function and supports overall cell processes.

LS.Bio.1.3

Analyze how the relationship between structure and function supports life processes within organisms.

Enzyme Function, Cofactors, and Inhibitors

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