detection-fluorescent-nanoparticle-interactions-with-primary-immune

Detection of Fluorescent Nanoparticle Interactions with Primary Immune Cell Subpopulations by Flow Cytometry

Engineered nanoparticles are endowed with very promising properties for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes. This work describes a fast and reliable ...

Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia

The possibility to monitor, in solution, the steps of beta-amyloid (Abeta) nucleation and therefore to describe this dynamic process by using capillary electrophoresis and under optimized experimental conditions is described. Striking differences in the electrophoretic patterns of Abeta 1-42 and Abeta 1-40 over time are here shown, and different aggregation states are elucidated, which reflect the very diverse oligomerization behavior of two very similar peptides. The isolation of one aggregated species of high molecular weight by ultracentrifugation allowed us to assess its role as toxic oligomer. The perturbation of the existing equilibrium among the identified species by the addition of small molecules can in principle interfere with the aggregation process of the peptides and ultimately prevent the plaque formation in vitro.

Capillary electrophoresis studies on the aggregation process of beta-amyloid 1-42 and 1-40 peptides.

Beta2-microglobulin (beta2-m) is a small amyloidogenic protein normally present on the surface of most nucleated cells and responsible for dialysis-related amyloidosis, which represents a severe complication of long-term hemodialysis. A therapeutic approach for this amyloidosis could be based on the stabilization of beta2-m through the binding to a small molecule, and consequent inhibition of protein misfolding and amyloid fibril formation. A few compounds have been described to weakly bind beta2-m, including the drug suramin. The lack of a binding site for nonpolypeptidic ligands on the beta2-m structure makes it difficult for both the identification of functional groups responsible for the binding and the search of hits to be optimized. The characterization of the binding properties of suramin for beta2-m by using three different techniques (surface plasmon resonance, affinity CE (ACE), ultrafiltration) is here described and the results obtained are compared. The common features of the chemical structures of the compounds known to bind the protein led us to select 200 sulfonated/suramin-like molecules from a wider chemical library on the basis of similarity rules, so as to possibly single out some interesting hits and to gain more information on the functional groups involved in the binding. The development of screening methods to test the compounds by using ultrafiltration and ACE is described.

Search of ligands for the amyloidogenic protein beta2-microglobulin by capillary electrophoresis and other techniques.

The self-assembly of polypeptides into stable, conductive, and intrinsically fluorescent biomolecular nanowires is reported. We have studied the morphology and electrical conduction of fibrils made of an elastin-related polypeptide, poly(ValGlyGlyLeuGly). These amyloid-like nanofibrils, with a diameter ranging from 20 to 250 nm, result from self-assembly in aqueous solution at neutral pH. Their morphological properties and conductivity have been investigated by atomic force microscopy, scanning tunneling microscopy, and two-terminal transport experiments at the micro- and nanoscales. We demonstrate that the nanofibrils can sustain significant electrical conduction in the solid state at ambient conditions and have remarkable stability. We also show intrinsic blue-green fluorescence of the nanofibrils by confocal microscopy analyses. These results indicate that direct (label-free) excitation can be used to investigate the aggregation state or the polymorphism of amyloid-like fibrils (and possibly of other proteinaceous material) and open up interesting perspectives for the use of peptide-based nanowire structures, with tunable physical and chemical properties, for a wide range of nanobiotechnological and bioelectronic applications.

Charge transport and intrinsic fluorescence in amyloid-like fibrils.

Human beta(2)-microglobulin (beta(2)m) is an amyloidogenic protein in patients suffering from chronic kidney disease and especially in those patients that need intermittent hemodialysis for longer periods, e.g., when awaiting transplantation. While many in vitro conditions induce beta(2)m-amyloid formation from wild-type (wt) beta(2)m and while a number of structurally altered beta(2)m molecules are known to be conformationally unstable and amyloidogenic on their own, it is not known why beta(2)m-amyloid is generated in some dialysis patients. For many amyloid proteins it is known that divalent metal ions, especially Cu(2+), display strong binding and distinct destabilizing effects on protein conformation. The present study uses CE to assess conformational states of wt and cleaved beta(2)m (dK58-beta(2)m, beta(2)m cleaved at lysine-58, a modification found in the circulation of hemodialysis patients) in the presence of divalent metal ions. The experiments provide both qualitative and quantitative data showing the specific destabilizing effects of Cu(2+)-ions on the folding of wt beta(2)m. Both refolding after acid denaturation and solution structure of beta(2)m under otherwise native conditions are severely influenced by Cu(2+). An increased unfolding, aggregation, and induction of Congo red-reactive molecular species in Cu(2+)-incubated wt-beta(2)m could be demonstrated while the refolding kinetics of dK58-beta(2)m, already slower than the wt molecule, appeared not to be further decreased by Cu(2+). Given the interest in the actions of metal ions in other types of amyloidosis, including, e.g., Alzheimer's disease and the prion encephalopathies, the use of microelectrophoretic methods to monitor unfolding and refolding of biomolecules available in scarce amounts as shown in this study is an attractive option.

The influence of Cu(2+) on the unfolding and refolding of intact and proteolytically processed beta(2)-microglobulin.

The development of appropriate in vitro protocols to assess the potential toxicity of the ever expanding range of nanoparticles represents a challenging issue, because of the rapid changes of their intrinsic physicochemical properties (size, shape, reactivity, surface area, etc.) upon dispersion in biological fluids. Dynamic formation of protein coating around nanoparticles is a key molecular event, which may strongly impact the biological response in nanotoxicological tests. In this work, by using citrate-capped gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) of different sizes as a model, we show, by several spectroscopic techniques (dynamic light scattering, UV-visible, plasmon resonance light scattering), that proteins-NP interactions are differently mediated by two widely used cellular media (i.e., Dulbecco Modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) and Roswell Park Memorial Institute medium (RPMI), supplemented with fetal bovine serum). We found that, while DMEM elicits the formation of a large time-dependent protein corona, RPMI shows different dynamics with reduced protein coating. Characterization of these nanobioentities was also performed by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and mass spectroscopy, revealing that the average composition of protein corona does not reflect the relative abundance of serum proteins. To evaluate the biological impact of such hybrid bionanostructures, several comparative viability assays onto two cell lines (HeLa and U937) were carried out in the two media, in the presence of 15 nm AuNPs. We observed that proteins/NP complexes formed in RPMI are more abundantly internalized in cells as compared to DMEM, overall exerting higher cytotoxic effects. These results show that, beyond an in-depth NPs characterization before cellular experiments, a detailed understanding of the effects elicited by cell culture media on NPs is crucial for standardized nanotoxicology tests.

Effects of cell culture media on the dynamic formation of protein-nanoparticle complexes and influence on the cellular response.

Bacterial adhesion onto inorganic/nanoengineered surfaces is a key issue in biotechnology and medicine, because it is one of the first necessary steps to determine a general pathogenic event. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of bacteria-surface interaction represents a milestone for planning a new generation of devices with unanimously certified antibacterial characteristics. Here, we show how highly controlled nanostructured substrates impact the bacterial behavior in terms of morphological, genomic, and proteomic response. We observed by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) that type-1 fimbriae typically disappear in Escherichia coli adherent onto nanostructured substrates, as opposed to bacteria onto reference glass or flat gold surfaces. A genetic variation of the fimbrial operon regulation was consistently identified by real time qPCR in bacteria interacting with the nanorough substrates. To gain a deeper insight into the molecular basis of the interaction mechanisms, we explored the entire proteomic profile of E. coli by 2D-DIGE, finding significant changes in the bacteria adherent onto the nanorough substrates, such as regulations of proteins involved in stress processes and defense mechanisms. We thus demonstrated that a pure physical stimulus, that is, a nanoscale variation of surface topography, may play per se a significant role in determining the morphological, genetic, and proteomic profile of bacteria. These data suggest that in depth investigations of the molecular processes of microorganisms adhering to surfaces are of great importance for the design of innovative biomaterials with active biological functionalities.

Impact of nanoscale topography on genomics and proteomics of adherent bacteria.

We demonstrate a simple but highly efficient technique to introduce multifunctional properties to cellulose fiber networks by wetting them with ethyl-cyanoacrylate monomer solutions containing various suspended organic submicrometer particles or inorganic nanoparticles. Solutions can be applied on cellulosic surfaces by simple solution casting techniques or by dip coating, both being suitable for large area applications. Immediately after solvent evaporation, ethyl-cyanoacrylate starts cross-linking around cellulose fibers under ambient conditions because of naturally occurring surface hydroxyl groups and adsorbed moisture, encapsulating them with a hydrophobic polymer shell. Furthermore, by dispersing various functional particles in the monomer solutions, hydrophobic ethyl-cyanoacrylate nanocomposites with desired functionalities can be formed around the cellulose fibers. To exhibit the versatility of the method, cellulose sheets were functionalized with different ethyl-cyanoacrylate nanocomposite shells comprising submicrometer wax or polytetrafluoroethylene particles for superhydophobicity, MnFe(2)O(4) nanoparticles for magnetic activity, CdSe/ZnS quantum dots for light emission, and silver nanoparticles for antimicrobial activity. Morphological and functional properties of each system have been studied by scanning and transmission electron microscopy, detailed contact angle measurements, light emission spectra and E. coli bacterial growth measurements. A plethora of potential applications can be envisioned for this technique, such as food and industrial packaging, document protection, catalytic cellulosic membranes, textronic (electrofunctional textiles), electromagnetic devices, authentication of valuable documents, and antimicrobial wound healing products to name a few.

Water-repellent cellulose fiber networks with multifunctional properties.

The peculiar physical/chemical characteristics of engineered nanomaterials have led to a rapid increase of nanotechnology-based applications in many fields. However, before exploiting their huge and wide potential, it is necessary to assess their effects upon interaction with living systems. In this context, the screening of nanomaterials to evaluate their possible toxicity and understand the underlying mechanisms currently represents a crucial opportunity to prevent severe harmful effects in the next future. In this work we show the in vivo toxicity of gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) in Drosophila melanogaster, highlighting significant genotoxic effects and, thus, revealing an unsettling aspect of the long-term outcome of the exposure to this nanomaterial. After the treatment with Au NPs, we observed dramatic phenotypic modifications in the subsequent generations of Drosophila, demonstrating their capability to induce mutagenic effects that may be transmitted to the descendants. Noteworthy, we were able to obtain the first nanomaterial-mutated organism, named NM-mut. Although these results sound alarming, they underline the importance of systematic and reliable toxicology characterizations of nanomaterials and the necessity of significant efforts by the nanoscience community in designing and testing suitable nanoscale surface engineering/coating to develop biocompatible nanomaterials with no hazardous effects for human health and environment.

Mutagenic effects of gold nanoparticles induce aberrant phenotypes in Drosophila melanogaster.

The expected potential benefits promised by nanotechnology in various fields have led to a rapid increase of the presence of engineered nanomaterials in a high number of commercial goods. This is generating increasing questions about possible risks for human health and environment, due to the lack of an in-depth assessment of the physical/chemical factors responsible for their toxic effects. In this work, we evaluated the toxicity of monodisperse citrate-capped gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) of different sizes (5, 15, 40, and 80 nm) in the model organism Drosophila melanogaster, upon ingestion. To properly evaluate and distinguish the possible dose- and/or size-dependent toxicity of the AuNPs, we performed a thorough assessment of their biological effects, using two different dose-metrics. In the first approach, we kept constant the total surface area of the differently sized AuNPs (Total Exposed Surface area approach, TES), while, in the second approach, we used the same number concentration of the four different sizes of AuNPs (Total Number of Nanoparticles approach, TNN). We observed a significant AuNPs-induced toxicity in vivo, namely a strong reduction of Drosophila lifespan and fertility performance, presence of DNA fragmentation, as well as a significant modification in the expression levels of genes involved in stress responses, DNA damage recognition and apoptosis pathway. Interestingly, we found that, within the investigated experimental conditions, the toxic effects in the exposed organisms were directly related to the concentration of the AuNPs administered, irrespective of their size.

Concentration-dependent, size-independent toxicity of citrate capped AuNPs in Drosophila melanogaster.

Bacterial adhesion onto abiotic surfaces is an important issue in biology and medicine since understanding the bases of such interaction represents a crucial aspect in the design of safe implant devices with intrinsic antibacterial characteristics. In this framework, we investigated the effects of nanostructured metal substrates on Escherichia coli adhesion and adaptation in order to understand the bio-molecular dynamics ruling the interactions at the interface. In particular, we show how highly controlled nanostructured gold substrates impact the bacterial behavior in terms of morphological changes and lead to modifications in the expression profile of several genes, which are crucially involved in the stress response and fimbrial synthesis. These results mainly demonstrate that E. coli cells are able to sense even slight changes in surface nanotopography and to actively respond by activating stress-related pathways. At the same time, our findings highlight the possibility of designing nanoengineered substrates able to trigger specific bio-molecular effects, thus opening the perspective of smartly tuning bacterial behavior by biomaterial design.

Molecular response of Escherichia coli adhering onto nanoscale topography.

Point mutations in the Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homologue (KRAS) gene are being increasingly recognized as important diagnostic and prognostic markers in cancer. In this work, we describe a rapid and low-cost method for the naked-eye detection of cancer-related point mutations in KRAS based on gold nanoparticles. This simple colorimetric assay is sensitive (limit of detection in the low picomolar range), instrument-free, and employs nonstringent room temperature conditions due to a combination of DNA-conjugated gold nanoparticles, a probe design which exploits cooperative hybridization for increased binding affinity, and signal enhancement on the surface of magnetic beads. Additionally, the scheme is suitable for point-of-care applications, as it combines naked-eye detection, small sample volumes, and isothermal (PCR-free) amplification.

Gold-nanoparticle-based colorimetric discrimination of cancer-related point mutations with picomolar sensitivity.

To assess the risk of all nanomaterials (NMs) on a case-by-case basis is challenging in terms of financial, ethical and time resources. Instead a more intelligent approach to knowledge gain and risk assessment is required.

Article	Year
Capillary electrophoresis studies on the aggregation process of beta-amyloid 1-42 and 1-40 peptides. Electrophoresis\| PubMed ID: 15472964	2004
Search of ligands for the amyloidogenic protein beta2-microglobulin by capillary electrophoresis and other techniques. Electrophoresis\| PubMed ID: 16200532	2005
Charge transport and intrinsic fluorescence in amyloid-like fibrils. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 17984067	2007
The influence of Cu(2+) on the unfolding and refolding of intact and proteolytically processed beta(2)-microglobulin. Electrophoresis\| PubMed ID: 18383026	2008
Effects of cell culture media on the dynamic formation of protein-nanoparticle complexes and influence on the cellular response. ACS nano\| PubMed ID: 21082814	2010
Impact of nanoscale topography on genomics and proteomics of adherent bacteria. ACS nano\| PubMed ID: 21344880	2011
Water-repellent cellulose fiber networks with multifunctional properties. ACS applied materials & interfaces\| PubMed ID: 21902239	2011
Mutagenic effects of gold nanoparticles induce aberrant phenotypes in Drosophila melanogaster. Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine\| PubMed ID: 22094122	2012
Concentration-dependent, size-independent toxicity of citrate capped AuNPs in Drosophila melanogaster. PloS one\| PubMed ID: 22238688	2012
Molecular response of Escherichia coli adhering onto nanoscale topography. Nanoscale research letters\| PubMed ID: 23078758	2012
Gold-nanoparticle-based colorimetric discrimination of cancer-related point mutations with picomolar sensitivity. ACS nano\| PubMed ID: 23697628	2013
ITS-NANO - Prioritising nanosafety research to develop a stakeholder driven intelligent testing strategy. Particle and fibre toxicology\| PubMed ID: 24521051	2014

Stefania Sabella

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