bead-aggregation-assays-for-characterization-putative-cell-adhesion

Bead Aggregation Assays for the Characterization of Putative Cell Adhesion Molecules

Cell-cell adhesion is fundamental to multicellular life and is mediated by a diverse array of cell surface proteins. However, the adhesive interactions ...

Ohio State University

N-cadherin is a prominent component of developing and mature synapses, yet very little is known about its trafficking within neurons. To investigate N-cadherin dynamics in developing axons, we used in vivo two-photon time-lapse microscopy of N-cadherin--green fluorescent protein (Ncad-GFP), which was expressed in Rohon-Beard neurons of the embryonic zebrafish spinal cord. Ncad-GFP was present as either stable accumulations or highly mobile transport packets. The mobile transport packets were of two types: tubulovesicular structures that moved preferentially in the anterograde direction and discrete-punctate structures that exhibited bidirectional movement. Stable puncta of Ncad-GFP accumulated in the wake of the growth cone with a time course. Colocalization of Ncad-GFP puncta with synaptic markers suggests that N-cadherin is a very early component of nascent synapses. Expression of deletion mutants revealed a potential role of the extracellular domain in appropriate N-cadherin trafficking and targeting. These results are the first to characterize the trafficking of a synaptic cell-adhesion molecule in developing axons in vivo. In addition, we have begun to investigate the cell biology of N-cadherin trafficking and targeting in the context of an intact vertebrate embryo.

In vivo trafficking and targeting of N-cadherin to nascent presynaptic terminals.

How are appropriate connections between neurons sorted from the overwhelming surplus of potential, yet inappropriate, connections? Despite the apparently improbable nature of the process, brains wire themselves with a high degree of reproducibility that has been conserved across evolutionary history. Here, we outline a viable cell-biological model for generating synaptic specificity that features selection of nascent synapses based on adhesion and recognition. This process uses the highly dynamic and stochastic nature of intracellular trafficking to generate reproducible patterns of synaptic connectivity.

Selective stabilization and synaptic specificity: a new cell-biological model.

The pcdhalpha/CNR gene comprises a diverse array of neuronal cell-surface proteins of the cadherin superfamily, although very little is known about their role in neural development. Here we provide the first in-depth characterization of pcdh1alpha in zebrafish. Whole-mount immunocytochemistry demonstrates that a large proportion of endogenous cytoplasmic domain immunoreactivity is present in the nucleus, suggesting that endoproteolytic cleavage and nuclear translocation of the intracellular domain are important aspects of pcdh1alpha activity in vivo. Using whole-mount immunocytochemistry and BAC-based expression of Pcdh1alpha-GFP fusion proteins, we find that Pcdh1alpha does not appear to form stable, synaptic puncta at early stages of synaptogenesis. We also demonstrate that the presence of the Pcdh1alpha cytoplasmic domain is essential for normal function. Truncation of Pcdh1alpha proteins, using splice-blocking antisense morpholinos to prevent the addition of the common intracellular domain to the entire pcdh1alpha cluster, results in neuronal apoptosis throughout the developing brain and spinal cord, demonstrating an essential role for pcdh1alpha in early neural development. This cell death phenotype can be attenuated by the expression of a soluble Pcdh1alpha cytoplasmic domain.

Inhibition of protocadherin-alpha function results in neuronal death in the developing zebrafish.

Protocadherins constitute the largest subgroup within the cadherin superfamily of cell surface molecules. In this study, we report the molecular cloning and expression analysis of the non-clustered protocadherin-17 (pcdh17) in the embryonic zebrafish nervous system. The zebrafish Pcdh17 protein is highly conserved, exhibiting 73% sequence homology with the human protein. The zebrafish pcdh17 gene consists of four exons spread over 150 kb, and this organization is highly conserved throughout vertebrates. Pcdh17 message is first detectable by 6 h postfertilization in the developing embryo, and the expression is maintained throughout development. Zebrafish embryos express pcdh17 in all of the major subdivisions of the central nervous system, including the telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon. Analysis of the genomic sequence upstream of pcdh17 in several species reveals a pattern of paired CpG islands. While the CpG islands in zebrafish are further upstream than in other teleosts, alignment of the identified sequences reveals a high degree of conservation, suggesting that the sequences may be important for the regulation of pcdh17 expression.

Cloning and characterization of zebrafish protocadherin-17.

One of the earliest stages of brain morphogenesis is the establishment of the neural tube during neurulation. While some of the cellular mechanisms responsible for neurulation have been described in a number of vertebrate species, the underlying molecular processes are not fully understood. We have identified the zebrafish homolog of protocadherin-19, a member of the cadherin superfamily, which is expressed in the anterior neural plate and is required for brain morphogenesis. Interference with Protocadherin-19 function with antisense morpholino oligonucleotides leads to a severe disruption in early brain morphogenesis. Despite these pronounced effects on neurulation, axial patterning of the neural tube appears normal, as assessed by in situ hybridization for otx2, pax2.1 and krox20. Characterization of embryos early in development by in vivo 2-photon timelapse microscopy reveals that the observed disruption of morphogenesis results from an arrest of cell convergence in the anterior neural plate. These results provide the first functional data for protocadherin-19, demonstrating an essential role in early brain development.

Protocadherin-19 is essential for early steps in brain morphogenesis.

The protocadherins comprise the largest subgroup within the cadherin superfamily, yet their cellular and developmental functions are not well understood. In this study, we demonstrate that pcdh 19 (protocadherin 19) acts synergistically with n-cadherin (ncad) during anterior neurulation in zebrafish. In addition, Pcdh 19 and Ncad interact directly, forming a protein-protein complex both in vitro and in vivo. Although both molecules are required for calcium-dependent adhesion in a zebrafish cell line, the extracellular domain of Pcdh 19 does not exhibit adhesive activity, suggesting that the involvement of Pcdh 19 in cell adhesion is indirect. Quantitative analysis of in vivo two-photon time-lapse image sequences reveals that loss of either pcdh 19 or ncad impairs cell movements during neurulation, disrupting both the directedness of cell movements and the coherence of movements among neighboring cells. Our results suggest that Pcdh 19 and Ncad function together to regulate cell adhesion and to mediate morphogenetic movements during brain development.

Protocadherin-19 and N-cadherin interact to control cell movements during anterior neurulation.

During embryonic morphogenesis, adhesion molecules are required for selective cell-cell interactions. The classical cadherins mediate homophilic calcium-dependent cell adhesion and are founding members of the large and diverse cadherin superfamily. The protocadherins are the largest subgroup within this superfamily, yet their participation in calcium-dependent cell adhesion is uncertain. In this paper, we demonstrate a novel mechanism of adhesion, mediated by a complex of Protocadherin-19 (Pcdh19) and N-cadherin (Ncad). Although Pcdh19 alone is only weakly adhesive, the Pcdh19-Ncad complex exhibited robust adhesion in bead aggregation assays, and Pcdh19 appeared to play the dominant role. Adhesion by the Pcdh19-Ncad complex was unaffected by mutations that disrupt Ncad homophilic binding but was inhibited by a mutation in Pcdh19. In addition, the complex exhibited homophilic specificity, as beads coated with Pcdh19-Ncad did not intermix with Ncad- or Pcdh17-Ncad-coated beads. We propose a model in which association of a protocadherin with Ncad acts as a switch, converting between distinct binding specificities.

A complex of Protocadherin-19 and N-cadherin mediates a novel mechanism of cell adhesion.

The embryonic zebrafish is a nearly ideal model system in which to use time-lapse imaging to study the development of the vertebrate nervous system in vivo. The embryos are small and transparent, they develop externally and rapidly, and the embryonic central nervous system is relatively simple and highly stereotyped. With the refinement of green fluorescent protein (GFP) as a genetically encoded fluorescent tag of neuronal proteins, along with advances in imaging technology, it is possible to follow the cellular and molecular events underlying development as they occur in the living embryo. This article describes strategies for imaging synapse formation in the embryonic zebrafish.

In vivo imaging of synaptogenesis in zebrafish.

The embryonic zebrafish is a nearly ideal model system in which to use time-lapse imaging to study the development of the vertebrate nervous system in vivo. The embryos are small and transparent, they develop externally and rapidly, and the embryonic central nervous system is relatively simple and highly stereotyped. With the refinement of green fluorescent protein (GFP) as a genetically encoded fluorescent tag of neuronal proteins, along with advances in imaging technology, it is possible to follow the cellular and molecular events underlying development as they occur in the living embryo. This protocol describes methods for imaging synapse formation in embryonic zebrafish. Injection of DNA into early embryos is followed by mounting of the transgenic embryos in agarose and then time-lapse data collection.

Fluorescence imaging of transgenic zebrafish embryos.

Proper function of the motor unit is dependent upon the correct development of dendrites and axons. The infant/childhood onset motoneuron disease spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), caused by low levels of the survival motor neuron (SMN) protein, is characterized by muscle denervation and paralysis. Although different SMA models have shown neuromuscular junction defects and/or motor axon defects, a comprehensive analysis of motoneuron development in vivo under conditions of low SMN will give insight into why the motor unit becomes dysfunctional. We have generated genetic mutants in zebrafish expressing low levels of SMN from the earliest stages of development. Analysis of motoneurons in these mutants revealed motor axons were often shorter and had fewer branches. We also found that motoneurons had significantly fewer dendritic branches and those present were shorter. Analysis of motor axon filopodial dynamics in live embryos revealed that mutants had fewer filopodia and their average half-life was shorter. To determine when SMN was needed to rescue motoneuron development, SMN was conditionally induced in smn mutants during embryonic stages. Only when SMN was added back soon after motoneurons were born, could later motor axon development be rescued. Importantly, analysis of motor behavior revealed that animals with motor axon defects had significant deficits in motor output. We also show that SMN is required earlier for motoneuron development than for survival. These data support that SMN is needed early in development of motoneuron dendrites and axons to develop normally and that this is essential for proper connectivity and movement.

Temporal requirement for SMN in motoneuron development.

The organization of functional neural circuits requires the precise and coordinated control of cell-cell interactions at nearly all stages of development, including neuronal differentiation, neuronal migration, axon outgrowth, dendrite arborization, and synapse formation and stabilization. This coordination is brought about by the concerted action of a large number of cell surface receptors, whose dynamic regulation enables neurons (and astrocytes) to adopt their proper roles within developing neural circuits. The protocadherins (Pcdhs) comprise a major family of cell surface receptors expressed in the developing vertebrate nervous system whose cellular and developmental roles are only beginning to be elucidated. In this review, we highlight selected recent results in several key areas of Pcdh biology and discuss their implications for our understanding of neural circuit formation and function.

Protocadherins, not prototypical: a complex tale of their interactions, expression, and functions.

Introduction to mechanisms of neural circuit formation.

The proper assembly of neural circuits during development requires the precise control of axon outgrowth, guidance, and arborization. Although the protocadherin family of cell surface receptors is widely hypothesized to participate in neural circuit assembly, their specific roles in neuronal development remain largely unknown. Here we demonstrate that zebrafish pcdh18b is involved in regulating axon arborization in primary motoneurons. Although axon outgrowth and elongation appear normal, antisense morpholino knockdown of pcdh18b results in dose-dependent axon branching defects in caudal primary motoneurons. Cell transplantation experiments show that this effect is cell autonomous. Pcdh18b interacts with Nap1, a core component of the WAVE complex, through its intracellular domain, suggesting a role in the control of actin assembly. Like that of Pcdh18b, depletion of Nap1 results in reduced branching of motor axons. Time-lapse imaging and quantitative analysis of axon dynamics indicate that both Pcdh18b and Nap1 regulate axon arborization by affecting the density of filopodia along the shaft of the extending axon.

Protocadherin-18b interacts with Nap1 to control motor axon growth and arborization in zebrafish.

Low levels of the survival motor neuron protein (SMN) cause the disease spinal muscular atrophy. A primary characteristic of this disease is motoneuron dysfunction and paralysis. Understanding why motoneurons are affected by low levels of SMN will lend insight into this disease and to motoneuron biology in general. Motoneurons in zebrafish smn mutants develop abnormally; however, it is unclear where Smn is needed for motoneuron development since it is a ubiquitously expressed protein. We have addressed this issue by expressing human SMN in motoneurons in zebrafish maternal-zygotic (mz) smn mutants. First, we demonstrate that SMN is present in axons, but only during the period of robust motor axon outgrowth. We also conclusively demonstrate that SMN acts cell autonomously in motoneurons for proper motoneuron development. This includes the formation of both axonal and dendritic branches. Analysis of the peripheral nervous system revealed that Schwann cells and dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons developed abnormally in mz-smn mutants. Schwann cells did not wrap axons tightly and had expanded nodes of Ranvier. The majority of DRG neurons had abnormally short peripheral axons and later many of them failed to divide and died. Expressing SMN just in motoneurons rescued both of these cell types showing that their failure to develop was secondary to the developmental defects in motoneurons. Driving SMN just in motoneurons did not increase survival of the animal, suggesting that SMN is needed for motoneuron development and motor circuitry, but that SMN in other cells types factors into survival.

Article	Year
In vivo trafficking and targeting of N-cadherin to nascent presynaptic terminals. The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience\| PubMed ID: 15483121	2004
Selective stabilization and synaptic specificity: a new cell-biological model. Trends in neurosciences\| PubMed ID: 16490264	2006
Inhibition of protocadherin-alpha function results in neuronal death in the developing zebrafish. Developmental biology\| PubMed ID: 18602383	2008
Cloning and characterization of zebrafish protocadherin-17. Development genes and evolution\| PubMed ID: 19449025	2009
Protocadherin-19 is essential for early steps in brain morphogenesis. Developmental biology\| PubMed ID: 19615992	2009
Protocadherin-19 and N-cadherin interact to control cell movements during anterior neurulation. The Journal of cell biology\| PubMed ID: 21115806	2010
A complex of Protocadherin-19 and N-cadherin mediates a novel mechanism of cell adhesion. The Journal of cell biology\| PubMed ID: 22184198	2011
In vivo imaging of synaptogenesis in zebrafish. Cold Spring Harbor protocols\| PubMed ID: 22550294	2012
Fluorescence imaging of transgenic zebrafish embryos. Cold Spring Harbor protocols\| PubMed ID: 22550295	2012
Temporal requirement for SMN in motoneuron development. Human molecular genetics\| PubMed ID: 23459934	2013
Protocadherins, not prototypical: a complex tale of their interactions, expression, and functions. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience\| PubMed ID: 23515683	2013
Introduction to mechanisms of neural circuit formation. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience\| PubMed ID: 23717261	2013
Protocadherin-18b interacts with Nap1 to control motor axon growth and arborization in zebrafish. Molecular biology of the cell\| PubMed ID: 24371087	2014
Motoneuron development influences dorsal root ganglia survival and Schwann cell development in a vertebrate model of spinal muscular atrophy. Human molecular genetics\| PubMed ID: 25180019	2014

James D. Jontes

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