measuring-dna-damage-repair-mouse-splenocytes-after-chronic-vivo

Measuring DNA Damage and Repair in Mouse Splenocytes After Chronic <em>In Vivo</em> Exposure to Very Low Doses of Beta- and Gamma-Radiation

Low dose radiation exposure may produce a variety of biological effects that are different in quantity and quality from the effects produced by high ...

Canadian Nuclear Laboratories

Nuclear clusterin (nCLU) is an ionizing radiation (IR)-inducible protein that binds Ku70, and triggers apoptosis when overexpressed in MCF-7 cells. We demonstrate that endogenous nCLU synthesis is a product of alternative splicing. Reverse transcriptase-PCR analyses revealed that exon II, containing the first AUG and encoding the endoplasmic reticulum-targeting peptide, was omitted. Exons I and III are spliced together placing a downstream AUG in exon III as the first available translation start site. This shorter mRNA produces the 49-kDa precursor nCLU protein. Ku70 binding activity was localized to the C-terminal coiled-coil domain of nCLU. Leucine residues 357, 358, and 361 of nCLU were necessary for Ku70-nCLU interaction. The N- and C-terminal coiled-coil domains of nCLU interacted with each other, suggesting that the protein could dimerize or fold. Mutation analyses indicate that the C-terminal NLS was functional in nCLU with the same contribution from N-terminal NLS. The C-terminal coiled-coil domain of nCLU was the minimal region required for Ku binding and apoptosis. MCF-7 cells show nuclear as well as cytoplasmic expression of GFP-nCLU in apoptotic cells. Cytosolic aggregation of GFP-nCLU was found in viable cells. These results indicate that an inactive precursor of nCLU exists in the cytoplasm of non-irradiated MCF-7 cells, translocates into the nucleus following IR, and induces apoptosis.

Synthesis and functional analyses of nuclear clusterin, a cell death protein.

The clusterin (CLU) protein has been reported to have both cytoprotective and cytotoxic activities. Previous data from our lab suggest that the secretory form of CLU (sCLU) is cytoprotective and induced after very low, nontoxic doses of ionizing radiation (IR: >0.02 Gy), while a nuclear form is cytotoxic. Cells must presumably suppress sCLU to stimulate cell death, however, factors regulating the stress-inducible expression of sCLU have not been elucidated. Here we demonstrate that p53 can suppress sCLU induction responses. A variety of cytotoxic agents stimulated sCLU expression and DNA damage was sufficient but not necessary for induction. IR-stimulated CLU promoter activity, with concomitant increases in CLU mRNA and protein, showed that CLU induction was delayed with maximal expression observed 48-96 h post-treatment. Expression of the human papillomavirus E6 protein in MCF-7 breast or RKO colon cancer cells enhanced basal CLU levels. Isogenically matched HCT116 colon cancer cell lines that differed only in p53 or p21 status, confirmed a role for p53 in the transcriptional repression of sCLU. Loss of functional p53 in HCT116:p53(-/-) cells augmented CLU de novo synthesis after IR exposure. Repression of sCLU protein levels by p53 may be important for the cascade of p53-mediated events leading to cell death after IR or other cytotoxic agent exposure.

Repression of IR-inducible clusterin expression by the p53 tumor suppressor protein.

Clusterin (CLU) plays numerous roles in mammalian cells after stress. A review of the recent literature strongly suggests potential roles for CLU proteins in low dose ionizing radiation (IR)-inducible adaptive responses, bystander effects, and delayed death and genomic instability. Its most striking and evident feature is the inducibility of the CLU promoter after low, as well as high, doses of IR. Two major forms of CLU, secreted (sCLU) and nuclear (nCLU), possess opposite functions in cellular responses to IR: sCLU is cytoprotective, whereas nCLU (a byproduct of alternative splicing) is a pro-death factor. Recent studies from our laboratory and others demonstrated that down-regulation of sCLU by specific siRNA increased cytotoxic responses to chemotherapy and IR. sCLU was induced after low non-toxic doses of IR (0.02-0.5 Gy) in human cultured cells and in mice in vivo. The low dose inducibility of this survival protein suggests a possible role for sCLU in radiation adaptive responses, characterized by increased cell radioresistance after exposure to low adapting IR doses. Although it is still unclear whether the adaptive response is beneficial or not to cells, survival of damaged cells after IR may lead to genomic instability in the descendants of surviving cells. Recent studies indicate a link between sCLU accumulation and cancer incidence, as well as aging, supporting involvement of the protein in the development of genomic instability. Secreted after IR, sCLU may also alter intracellular communication due to its ability to bind cell surface receptors, such as the TGF-beta receptors (types I and II). This interference with signaling pathways may contribute to IR-induced bystander effects. We hypothesize that activation of the TGF-beta signaling pathway, which often occurs after IR exposure, can in turn activate the CLU promoter. TGF-beta and IR-inducible de novo synthesized sCLU may then bind the TGF-beta receptors and suppress downstream growth arrest signaling. This complicated negative feedback regulation most certainly depends on the cellular microenvironment, but undoubtedly represents a potential link between IR-induced adaptive responses, genomic instability and bystander effects. Further elucidation of clusterin protein functions in IR responses are clearly warranted.

IR-inducible clusterin gene expression: a protein with potential roles in ionizing radiation-induced adaptive responses, genomic instability, and bystander effects.

Exposure of cells to hypertonic medium after X-irradiation results in a 3-4-fold increase in the phosphorylation of histone H2AX (gammaH2AX) at sites of radiation-induced DNA double-strand breaks. This increase was previously associated with salt-induced radiosensitization and inhibition of repair of DNA double-strand breaks. To examine possible mechanisms for the increase in foci size, chemical inhibitors of kinase and phosphatase activity and cell lines deficient in ATM and DNA-PK, two kinases known to phosphorylate H2AX, were examined. H2AX kinase and phosphatase activity were maintained in the presence of high salt. ATM mutant HT144 melanoma cells showed the expected 3-4-fold increase in H2AX phosphorylation in the presence of 0.5M Na(+). However, DNA-PKcs deficient M059J cells failed to respond to hypertonic treatment and M059J Fus1 cells corrected for this deficiency showed the expected increase in foci size. Although the active phosphoform of ATM, phosphoserine-1981, increased after irradiation, the level was unaffected by the addition of 0.5M Na(+). Instead, 0.5M Na(+) caused a partial redistribution of serine-1981-ATM to perinuclear regions. Hypertonic medium added after irradiation was effective in inhibiting rejoining of the radiation-induced double-strand breaks even in DNA-PK deficient M059J cells. We suggest that hypertonic treatment following irradiation inhibits double-strand break rejoining that in turn maintains DNA-PK activity at the site of the break, enhancing the size of the gammaH2AX foci.

DNA-PK is responsible for enhanced phosphorylation of histone H2AX under hypertonic conditions.

Human tumor cell lines grown as monolayers or xenograft tumors were exposed to single or multiple fractions of X-rays and the ability to use residual gammaH2AX to identify radiosensitive cells was assessed.

Phosphorylated histone H2AX in relation to cell survival in tumor cells and xenografts exposed to single and fractionated doses of X-rays.

Evidence suggests that tumor cells exposed to some DNA damaging agents are more likely to die if they retain microscopically visible gammaH2AX foci that are known to mark sites of double-strand breaks. This appears to be true even after exposure to the alkylating agent MNNG that does not cause direct double-strand breaks but does produce gammaH2AX foci when damaged DNA undergoes replication.

Residual gammaH2AX foci as an indication of lethal DNA lesions.

There is a considerable controversy as to whether DNA damage induced by low doses and low dose rates of ionizing radiation is treated by cellular defence mechanisms in ways similar to that induced at high doses and high dose rates, and what downstream delayed effects may be caused by low doses compared to moderate and high doses. This constitutes the major challenge for the linear no-threshold model currently used for radiological risk estimates. Among the various DNA lesions induced by ionizing radiation, DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) are considered the most important due to their potential to cause cell death, mutagenesis and carcinogenesis. This study examined the accumulation of DNA DSBs in mouse blood leucocytes and splenocytes after long-term, chronic low dose γ-irradiation in vivo, and how this exposure may alter cell sensitivity to acute high dose irradiation. Animals were irradiated for 40, 80 or 120 days at a dose rate of 0.15mGy/h, with total accumulated doses of 144, 288 and 432mGy. DNA DSBs were measured in blood leucocytes and splenocytes using the neutral comet assay. We found that after an initial slight increase in the level of DNA DSBs at 40 days of exposure compared to controls, there was a subsequent drop after either 80 (P<0.01) or 120 days of exposure (P=0.066 for blood leucocytes; P=0.024 for splenocytes). Interestingly, the DNA breaks level after both 80 and 120 days of exposure was lower than in control. Similarly, the cells exposed to the chronic radiation for 80 and 120 days were less sensitive to the induction of DNA DSBs by acute 4Gy irradiation, whereas 40 days of exposure did not significantly modify the radiosensitivity. Our results indirectly indicate that low level ionizing radiation in vivo may trigger inducible repair of both endogenous and exogenous DNA DSBs, and that there is a dose threshold for this inducible defence mechanism, below which it does not occur. These data provide new evidence, now at the molecular level in vivo, that the dose-response for DNA DSBs at very low doses and dose rates is not linear.

In vivo γ-irradiation low dose threshold for suppression of DNA double strand breaks below the spontaneous level in mouse blood and spleen cells.

Health effects of tritium, a β-emitter and a by-product of the nuclear industry, is a subject of significant controversy. This mouse in vivo study was undertaken to monitor biological effects of low level tritium exposure. Mice were exposed to tritiated drinking water (HTO) at 10 KBq/L, 1 MBq/L and 20 MBq/L concentrations for one month. The treatment did not result in a significant increase of apoptosis in splenocytes. To examine if this low level tritium exposure alters radiosensitivity, the extracted splenocytes were challenged in vitro with 2 Gy γ-radiation, and apoptotic responses at 1 and 24 h were measured. No alterations in the radiosensitivity were detected in cells from mice exposed to tritium compared to sham-treated mice. In contrast, low dose γ-irradiation at 20 or 100 mGy, resulted in a significant increase in resistance to apoptotic cell death after 2 Gy irradiation; an indication of the radioadaptive response. Overall, our data suggest that low concentrations of tritium given to mice as HTO in drinking water do not exert cytotoxic effect in splenocytes, nor do they change cellular sensitivity to additional high dose γ-radiation. The latter may be considered as the lack of a radioadaptive response, typically observed after low dose γ-irradiation.

The lack of cytotoxic effect and radioadaptive response in splenocytes of mice exposed to low level internal β-particle irradiation through tritiated drinking water in vivo.

This study was undertaken to evaluate the compatibility of Giemsa staining protocol with the comet assay. We showed, for the first time, that DNA comets can be visualized and analyzed using Giemsa staining. We generated DNA damage dose response curves for human peripheral blood lymphocytes exposed to X-ray radiation using the comet assay with either SybrGreen I or Giemsa stain. The dose response curves were fitted by linear regressions (R2>0.977). The SybrGreen I results showed only ~1.2-fold higher slope coefficient (method sensitivity) compared to the Giemsa results. The unexpectedly high sensitivity of Giemsa staining for the comet assay is due to the Romanowsky-Giemsa effect, the stain photo-stability and the higher resolution of bright-field imaging compared to fluorescence imaging. Our results demonstrate that Giemsa staining can effectively be used for measuring DNA damage by the comet assay. The low cost and availability of Giemsa stain makes this method affordable for any low budget research and will facilitate new applications of the comet assay in biology and medicine.

DNA comet Giemsa staining for conventional bright-field microscopy.

In this study, we sought to determine whether low-dose ionizing radiation, previously shown to induce a systemic adaptive response in C57BL/6J mice, is capable of enhancing the rate of DNA double-strand break repair. Repair capacity was determined by measuring γ-H2AX levels in splenic and thymic lymphocytes, using flow cytometry, at different times after a challenge irradiation (2 Gy, (60)Co). Irradiation with low doses (20 and 100 mGy) was conducted in vivo, whereas the challenge dose was applied to primary cultures of splenocytes and thymocytes in vitro 24 h later. Obtained kinetics curves of formation and loss of γ-H2AX indicated that cells from low-dose irradiated mice did not express more efficient DNA double-strand break repair compared to controls. Immunoblot analysis of γ-H2AX and Phospho-Ser-1981 ATM confirmed that DNA damage signaling was not modulated by preliminary low-dose radiation. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts of C57BL genetic background failed to show clonogenic survival radioadaptive response or enhanced repair of DNA double-strand breaks as evaluated by immunofluorescence microscopy of γ-H2AX foci. Our results indicate that radiation adaptive responses at systemic levels, such as increases in the tumor latency times in aging mice, may not be mediated by modulated DNA repair, and that the genetic background may affect expression of a radioadaptive response.

Repair of DNA double-strand breaks is not modulated by low-dose gamma radiation in C57BL/6J mice.

The potency of UVA radiation, representing 90% of solar UV light reaching the earth's surface, to induce human skin cancer is the subject of continuing controversy. This study was undertaken to investigate the role of reactive oxygen species in DNA damage produced by the exposure of human cells to UVA radiation. This knowledge is important for better understanding of UV-induced carcinogenesis. We measured DNA single-strand breaks and alkali-labile sites in human lymphocytes exposed ex vivo to various doses of 365-nm UV photons compared to X-rays and hydrogen peroxide using the comet assay. We demonstrated that the UVA-induced DNA damage increased in a linear dose-dependent manner. The rate of DNA single-strand breaks and alkali-labile sites after exposure to 1J/cm(2) was similar to the rate induced by exposure to 1 Gy of X-rays or 25 μM hydrogen peroxide. The presence of either the hydroxyl radical scavenger dimethyl sulfoxide or the singlet oxygen quencher sodium azide resulted in a significant reduction in the UVA-induced DNA damage, suggesting a role for these reactive oxygen species in mediating UVA-induced DNA single-strand breaks and alkali-labile sites. We also showed that chromatin relaxation due to hypertonic conditions resulted in increased damage in both untreated and UVA-treated cells. The effect was the most significant in the presence of 0.5M Na(+), implying a role for histone H1. Our data suggest that the majority of DNA single-strand breaks and alkali-labile sites after exposure of human lymphocytes to UVA are produced by reactive oxygen species (the hydroxyl radical and singlet oxygen) and that the state of chromatin may substantially contribute to the outcome of such exposures.

Article	Year
Synthesis and functional analyses of nuclear clusterin, a cell death protein. The Journal of biological chemistry\| PubMed ID: 12551933	2003
Repression of IR-inducible clusterin expression by the p53 tumor suppressor protein. Cancer biology & therapy\| PubMed ID: 14508108	2003
IR-inducible clusterin gene expression: a protein with potential roles in ionizing radiation-induced adaptive responses, genomic instability, and bystander effects. Mutation research\| PubMed ID: 15530543	2004
DNA-PK is responsible for enhanced phosphorylation of histone H2AX under hypertonic conditions. DNA repair\| PubMed ID: 16046194	2005
Phosphorylated histone H2AX in relation to cell survival in tumor cells and xenografts exposed to single and fractionated doses of X-rays. Radiotherapy and oncology : journal of the European Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology\| PubMed ID: 16905207	2006
Residual gammaH2AX foci as an indication of lethal DNA lesions. BMC cancer\| PubMed ID: 20051134	2010
In vivo γ-irradiation low dose threshold for suppression of DNA double strand breaks below the spontaneous level in mouse blood and spleen cells. Mutation research\| PubMed ID: 23664857	2013
The lack of cytotoxic effect and radioadaptive response in splenocytes of mice exposed to low level internal β-particle irradiation through tritiated drinking water in vivo. International journal of molecular sciences\| PubMed ID: 24317437	2013
DNA comet Giemsa staining for conventional bright-field microscopy. International journal of molecular sciences\| PubMed ID: 24727376	2014
Repair of DNA double-strand breaks is not modulated by low-dose gamma radiation in C57BL/6J mice. Radiation research\| PubMed ID: 24785832	2014
The formation of DNA single-strand breaks and alkali-labile sites in human blood lymphocytes exposed to 365-nm UVA radiation. Free radical biology & medicine\| PubMed ID: 24816295	2014

Dmitry Klokov

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