atom-transfer-radical-polymerization-functionalized-vinyl-monomers

Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization of Functionalized Vinyl Monomers Using Perylene as a Visible Light Photocatalyst

A standardized technique for atom transfer radical polymerization of vinyl monomers using perylene as a visible-light photocatalyst is presented. The ...

University of Colorado Boulder

Asymmetric coordination polymerization of acrylamides by enantiomeric metallocenium ester enolate catalysts.

This contribution reports the first study of coordination-addition polymerization of renewable butyrolactone-based vinyl monomers, MBL (alpha-methylene-gamma-butyrolactone) and MMBL (gamma-methyl-alpha-methylene-gamma-butyrolactone), using neutral lanthanocene(II), non-lanthanocene(III), and cationic group 4 metallocene catalysts. The samarocene(II) catalyst, Cp*(2)Sm(THF)(2), promotes a rapid, efficient, and controlled polymerization of MBL and MMBL in DMF at ambient temperature, exhibiting a high TOF of 3000 h(-1), typically near quantitative initiator efficiency, and the ability to control the polymer MW. The resulting atactic PMBL and PMMBL have high T(g)'s of 194 degrees C and 227 degrees C, respectively; when compared to atactic PMMA having comparable MW, the T(g) and onset decomposition temperatures of the PMMBL produced are substantially higher (by approximately 120 degrees C and 40 degrees C, respectively). Owing to the living/controlled characteristics of this polymerization, well-defined random and block copolymers of MBL with MMA and MMBL can be readily synthesized. Results of the kinetic and polymerization studies indicate that the true active species is the trivalent samarocene centers attached to the single growing polymer chain, derived presumably from a redox-then-radical-coupling process. In comparison, the polymerizations by non-lanthanocene(III) silylamides, Ln[N(SiMe(3))(2)](3) (Ln = La, Nd, Sm, Er), and by cationic group 4 metallocene and half-metallocene catalysts incorporating C(2) and C(s) symmetric ligands are much slower and less effective. Catalytic polymerization of MBL by Cp*(2)Sm(THF)(2) has also been realized in the presence of an enolizable organo acid as a suitable chain transfer agent.

Coordination polymerization of renewable butyrolactone-based vinyl monomers by lanthanide and early metal catalysts.

Alane-based classical and frustrated Lewis pairs in polymer synthesis: rapid polymerization of MMA and naturally renewable methylene butyrolactones into high-molecular-weight polymers.

Two ansa-half-sandwich rare-earth-metal (REM) dialkyl complexes supported by an ethylene-bridged fluorenyl (Flu)-N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligand, [M{C(2)H(4)(η(5)-Flu-κ(1)-NHC)}(CH(2)SiMe(3))(2)] (M=Y, 1; Lu, 2), and a chiral ansa-sandwich samarocene incorporating a C(2) ligand, [Sm(η(5)-C(12)H(8))(2)(thf)(2)] (3), have been investigated for the coordination-addition polymerization of renewable methylene butyrolactones, α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone (MBL) and γ-methyl-α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone ((γ)MMBL). Both ansa-half-sandwich complexes 1 and 2 exhibit exceptional activity for the polymerization of (γ)MMBL at room temperature in dimethylformamide (DMF); with a 0.25 mol% catalyst loading, quantitative monomer conversion can be achieved under 1 min, giving a high turn-over frequency (TOF) of 24,000 h(-1). This TOF value represents a rate enhancement, by a factor of 8, 22, or 2400, over the polymerizations by unbridged samarocene [Sm(Cp*)(2)(thf)(2)] (Cp*=η(5) -pentamethylcyclopentadienyl), by bridged ansa-samarocene 3 with C(2) ligation, or by the corresponding REM trialkyls without the ansa-Flu-NHC ligation, respectively. Complexes 1 and 2 are also highly active for the polymerization of β-methyl-α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone ((β)MMBL), realizing the first example of the metal-mediated coordination polymerization of this monomer and its copolymerization with (γ)MMBL. More remarkably, the resulting P(β)MMBL homopolymer is highly stereoregular (91% mm) and exhibits a high T(g) of 290 °C. In sharp contrast, catalysts 1 and 2 have poor activity and efficiency in the polymerization of the parent MBL or the acyclic analog methyl methacrylate. Polymerization and kinetic studies using the most active catalyst (1) of the series have uncovered characteristics of its (γ)MMBL polymerization and yielded a unimolecular propagation mechanism. A surprising chain-initiation pathway for the polymerization in DMF by 1 has been revealed, and catalytic polymerization in the presence of an organoacid has also been examined.

ansa-Rare-earth-metal catalysts for rapid and stereoselective polymerization of renewable methylene methylbutyrolactones.

Classical and frustrated Lewis pairs (LPs) of the strong Lewis acid (LA) Al(C(6)F(5))(3) with several Lewis base (LB) classes have been found to exhibit exceptional activity in the Lewis pair polymerization (LPP) of conjugated polar alkenes such as methyl methacrylate (MMA) as well as renewable α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone (MBL) and γ-methyl-α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone (γ-MMBL), leading to high molecular weight polymers, often with narrow molecular weight distributions. This study has investigated a large number of LPs, consisting of 11 LAs as well as 10 achiral and 4 chiral LBs, for LPP of 12 monomers of several different types. Although some more common LAs can also be utilized for LPP, Al(C(6)F(5))(3)-based LPs are far more active and effective than other LA-based LPs. On the other hand, several classes of LBs, when paired with Al(C(6)F(5))(3), can render highly active and effective LPP of MMA and γ-MMBL; such LBs include phosphines (e.g., P(t)Bu(3)), chiral chelating diphosphines, N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs), and phosphazene superbases (e.g., P(4)-(t)Bu). The P(4)-(t)Bu/Al(C(6)F(5))(3) pair exhibits the highest activity of the LP series, with a remarkably high turn-over frequency of 9.6 × 10(4) h(-1) (0.125 mol% catalyst, 100% MMA conversion in 30 s, M(n) = 2.12 × 10(5) g mol(-1), PDI = 1.34). The polymers produced by LPs at RT are typically atactic (P(γ)MMBL with ∼47% mr) or syndio-rich (PMMA with ∼70-75% rr), but highly syndiotactic PMMA with rr ∼91% can be produced by chiral or achiral LPs at -78 °C. Mechanistic studies have identified and structurally characterized zwitterionic phosphonium and imidazolium enolaluminates as the active species of the current LPP system, which are formed by the reaction of the monomer·Al(C(6)F(5))(3) adduct with P(t)Bu(3) and NHC bases, respectively. Kinetic studies have revealed that the MMA polymerization by the (t)Bu(3)P/Al(C(6)F(5))(3) pair is zero-order in monomer concentration after an initial induction period, and the polymerization is significantly catalyzed by the LA, thus pointing to a bimetallic, activated monomer propagation mechanism. Computational study on the active species formation as well as the chain initiation and propagation events involved in the LPP of MMA with some of the most representative LPs has added our understanding of fundamental steps of LPP. The main difference between NHC and PR(3) bases is in the energetics of zwitterion formation, with the NHC-based zwitterions being remarkably more stable than the PR(3)-based zwitterions. Comparison of the monometallic and bimetallic mechanisms for MMA addition shows a clear preference for the bimetallic mechanism.

Lewis pair polymerization by classical and frustrated Lewis pairs: acid, base and monomer scope and polymerization mechanism.

The synthesis of rigid-rod, helical isocyanate-based macromonomers was achieved through the polymerization of hexyl isocyanate and 4-phenylbutyl isocyanate, initiated by an exo-norbornene functionalized half-titanocene complex. Sequential ruthenium-mediated ring-opening metathesis polymerization of these macromonomers readily afforded well-defined brush block copolymers, with precisely tunable molecular weights ranging from high (1512 kDa) to ultrahigh (7119 kDa), while maintaining narrow molecular weight distributions (PDI = 1.08-1.39). The self-assembly of these brush block copolymers to solid thin-films and their photonic properties were investigated. Due to the rigid architecture of these novel polymeric materials, they rapidly self-assemble through simple controlled evaporation to photonic crystal materials that reflect light from the ultra-violet, through the visible, to the near-infrared. The wavelength of reflectance is linearly related to the brush block copolymer molecular weight, allowing for predictable tuning of the band gap through synthetic control of the polymer molecular weight. A combination of scanning electron microscopy and optical modeling was employed to explain the origin of reflectivity.

Synthesis of isocyanate-based brush block copolymers and their rapid self-assembly to infrared-reflecting photonic crystals.

The reduced chain entanglement of brush polymers over their linear analogs drastically lowers the energetic barriers to reorganization. In this report, we demonstrate the rapid self-assembly of brush block copolymers to nanostructures with photonic bandgaps spanning the entire visible spectrum, from ultraviolet (UV) to near infrared (NIR). Linear relationships were observed between the peak wavelengths of reflection and polymer molecular weights. This work enables "bottom-up" fabrication of photonic crystals with application-tailored bandgaps, through synthetic control of the polymer molecular weight and the method of self-assembly. These polymers could be developed into NIR-reflective paints, to combat the "urban heat island effect" due to NIR photon thermalization.

Rapid self-assembly of brush block copolymers to photonic crystals.

Colorful: enabled by their reduced capacity for chain entanglement, high-molecular-weight brush block copolymers can rapidly self-assemble to photonic crystals. The blending of two polymers of different molecular weight can predictably modulate the sizes of the polymer domains, giving rise to a facile means of precision tuning of these photonic-band-gap materials.

Precisely tunable photonic crystals from rapidly self-assembling brush block copolymer blends.

Dendronized block copolymers were synthesized by ruthenium-mediated ring-opening methathesis polymerization of exo-norbornene functionalized dendrimer monomers, and their self-assembly to dielectric mirrors was investigated. The rigid-rod main-chain conformation of these polymers drastically lowers the energetic barrier for reorganization, enabling their rapid self-assembly to long-range, highly ordered nanostructures. The high fidelity of these dielectric mirrors is attributed to the uniform polymer architecture achieved from the construction of discrete dendritic repeat units. These materials exhibit light-reflecting properties due to the multilayer architecture, presenting an attractive bottom-up approach to efficient dielectric mirrors with narrow band gaps. The wavelength of reflectance scales linearly with block-copolymer molecular weight, ranging from the ultraviolet, through the visible, to the near-infrared. This allows for the modulation of photonic properties through synthetic control of the polymer molecular weight. This work represents a significant advancement in closing the gap between the precision obtained from top-down and bottom-up approaches.

Highly ordered dielectric mirrors via the self-assembly of dendronized block copolymers.

A zwitterionic palladium complex of a phosphine bearing a perchlorinated carba-closo-dodecaborate anion as a ligand substituent is reported. A single-crystal X-ray diffraction study reveals that, in the solid state, one of the chlorides of the carborane cage occupies a coordination site of the square-planar complex. However, in solution, the P-carborane bond of the ligand is rapidly rotating at temperatures as low as -90 °C, which demonstrates the carborane substituent's weak coordinative ability even though this anion is covalently linked to the phosphine ligand. The complex is thermally stable and catalyzes the vinyl addition polymerization of norbornene.

Synthesis and reactivity of a zwitterionic palladium allyl complex supported by a perchlorinated carboranyl phosphine.

Atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) has become one of the most implemented methods for polymer synthesis due to impressive control over polymer composition and associated properties. However, contamination of the polymer by the metal catalyst remains a major limitation. Organic ATRP photoredox catalysts have been sought to address this difficult challenge, but have not achieved the precision performance of metal catalysts. Here, we introduce diaryl dihydrophenazines, identified through computationally directed discovery, as a class of strongly reducing photoredox catalysts. These catalysts achieve high initiator efficiencies through activation by visible light to synthesize polymers with tunable molecular weights and low dispersities.

Article	Year
Asymmetric coordination polymerization of acrylamides by enantiomeric metallocenium ester enolate catalysts. Journal of the American Chemical Society\| PubMed ID: 17480082	2007
Coordination polymerization of renewable butyrolactone-based vinyl monomers by lanthanide and early metal catalysts. Dalton transactions (Cambridge, England : 2003)\| PubMed ID: 20631950	2010
Alane-based classical and frustrated Lewis pairs in polymer synthesis: rapid polymerization of MMA and naturally renewable methylene butyrolactones into high-molecular-weight polymers. Angewandte Chemie (International ed. in English)\| PubMed ID: 21108294	2010
ansa-Rare-earth-metal catalysts for rapid and stereoselective polymerization of renewable methylene methylbutyrolactones. Chemistry (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany)\| PubMed ID: 22298386	2012
Lewis pair polymerization by classical and frustrated Lewis pairs: acid, base and monomer scope and polymerization mechanism. Dalton transactions (Cambridge, England : 2003)\| PubMed ID: 22614678	2012
Synthesis of isocyanate-based brush block copolymers and their rapid self-assembly to infrared-reflecting photonic crystals. Journal of the American Chemical Society\| PubMed ID: 22891697	2012
Rapid self-assembly of brush block copolymers to photonic crystals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 22912408	2012
Precisely tunable photonic crystals from rapidly self-assembling brush block copolymer blends. Angewandte Chemie (International ed. in English)\| PubMed ID: 22976479	2012
Highly ordered dielectric mirrors via the self-assembly of dendronized block copolymers. Journal of the American Chemical Society\| PubMed ID: 24093537	2013
Synthesis and reactivity of a zwitterionic palladium allyl complex supported by a perchlorinated carboranyl phosphine. Inorganic chemistry\| PubMed ID: 25965071	2015
Organocatalyzed atom transfer radical polymerization driven by visible light. Science (New York, N.Y.)\| PubMed ID: 27033549	2016

Garret M. Miyake

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