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Elevated Plus Maze Test Combined with Video Tracking Software to Investigate the Anxiolytic Effect of Exogenous Ketogenic Supplements

The overall goal of this study is to describe the methodology of the elevated plus maze (EPM) test in combination with a video tracking software. The ...

University of South Florida

This paper supplements former studies on elasmobranch species with an immunohistochemical investigation into glutamine synthetase and S-100 protein, in addition to GFAP, and extends its scope to the representatives of almost every group of Elasmobranchii: squalomorph sharks, galeomorph sharks, skates (Rajiformes) and rays (Torpediniformes and Myliobatifomes). More glial elements were labeled by S-100 protein, and even more so by using glutamine synthetase immunostaining than by GFAP: more astrocytes (mainly non-perivascular ones) were detected in the telencephalon of sharks, skates and rays. Only the markers S-100 and glutamine synthetase, but not GFAP, characterized the Bergmann-glia of skates and rays and astrocyte-like non-ependymal cells in Squalus acanthias. Another squalomorph shark species, Pristiophorus cirratus, however, had GFAP immunopositive astrocytes. Of all the species studied, the greatest number of GFAP positive astrocytes could be observed in Mobula japanica (order Myliobatiformes), in each major brain part. According to anatomical location, perivascular glia comprised varied types, including even a location in Mobula, which can also be found in mammals. Remnants of radial glia were found in confined areas of skates, less so in rays. In the rhombencephalon and in the spinal cord modified ependymoglia predominated in every group. In conclusion, there was no meaningful difference between the astroglial architectures of squalomorph and galeomorph sharks. The difference in the astroglial structure between sharks and batoids, however, was confined to the telencephalon and mesencephalon, and did not take place in the rhombencephalon, the latter structure being quite similar in all the species studied. The appearance of astrocytes in the relatively thin-walled shark telencephalon, however, indicates that the brain thickening promoted the preponderance of astrocytes rather than their appearance itself. Although the evolutionary changes of astroglia had some similarities in Elasmobranchii and Amniota, there was one meaningful difference: in Elasmobranchii astrocytes did not prevail in conservative brain regions as they did in the progressive brain regions.

Evolutionary changes of astroglia in Elasmobranchii comparing to amniotes: a study based on three immunohistochemical markers (GFAP, S-100, and glutamine synthetase).

This article presents the first study on the glial architecture of a representative species of Holocephali, Callorhinchus milii (ghost shark). Holocephali are a small subclass of Chondrichthyes, with only a few extant genera, and those are considered to have a brain organization more similar to squalomorph sharks than to galeomorph sharks, skates, and rays. Three different astroglial markers--glial fibrillary acidic protein, S-100 protein, and glutamine synthetase (GS)--were investigated by immunohistochemical methods, applying both diaminobenzidine (DAB) and fluorescent techniques. They revealed similar glial structures, although most of them were detected by immunohistochemical reaction against GS and visualized by DAB. The predominant elements were radial ependymoglia spanning the area between the ventricular and meningeal surfaces, as in squalomorph sharks. Other similar features were the light appearance of myelinated neural tracts devoid of immunoreactivity, and the glial architecture of the reticular formation of the brain stem, cerebellum, and tectum, the latter with recognizable layers. The immunoreactivity of the vascular walls was similar; however, it is believed that different cell types form the blood-brain barrier in chimeras and in elasmobranchs. Some glial structures, however, resembled those of skates, rays, and galeomorph sharks. In C. milii astrocyte-like elements were observed in the telencephalon, using GS and S-100, although typical astrocyte-rich regions were not found. In some areas, especially the telencephalon, not only endfeet but also cell bodies were observed to be attached to the meningeal surface, with processes extending into the brain substance.

Glial architecture of the ghost shark (Callorhinchus milii, Holocephali, Chondrichthyes) as revealed by different immunohistochemical markers.

Ketogenic diet (KD) and exogenous ketone supplements can evoke sustained ketosis, which may modulate sleep and sleep-like effects. However, no studies have been published examining the effect of ketosis on the onset of general isoflurane induced anesthesia. Therefore, we investigated the effect of the KD and different exogenous ketogenic supplements on the onset of akinesia induced by inhalation of isoflurane.

Article	Year
Evolutionary changes of astroglia in Elasmobranchii comparing to amniotes: a study based on three immunohistochemical markers (GFAP, S-100, and glutamine synthetase). Brain, behavior and evolution\| PubMed ID: 18446022	2008
Glial architecture of the ghost shark (Callorhinchus milii, Holocephali, Chondrichthyes) as revealed by different immunohistochemical markers. Journal of experimental zoology. Part B, Molecular and developmental evolution\| PubMed ID: 18512702	2008
Nutritional ketosis delays the onset of isoflurane induced anesthesia. BMC anesthesiology\| PubMed ID: 30021521	2018

Csilla Ari

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