establishment-analysis-tumor-slice-explants-as-prerequisite-for

Establishment and Analysis of Tumor Slice Explants As a Prerequisite for Diagnostic Testing

Organotypic primary tissue explant cultures, which include precision-cut slices, represent the three-dimensional (3-D) tissue architecture as well as the ...

University of Helsinki

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression is a marker of poor prognosis in gastric cancer patients, and its inhibition suppresses gastric tumorigenesis in experimental animal models. The mechanism that leads to COX-2 overexpression in this tumor type is unknown. We have now shown that inhibition of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase by LY294002 suppresses both basal and phorbol myristate acetate-induced COX-2 expression in TMK-1 and MKN-28 gastric cancer cells. Furthermore, inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK-3beta) by SB415286 induced expression of COX-2 mRNA and protein as well as the enzyme activity in the gastric cancer cells. The effect of SB415286 was confirmed by the use of two additional GSK-3beta inhibitors, lithium chloride and SB216763. SB415286 had a modest 1.6-fold stimulatory effect on a 2-kb COX-2 promoter reporter construct, but more importantly, it was shown to block the decay of COX-2 mRNA. In contrast to modulation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt/GSK-3beta pathway, inhibitors of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MEK 1/2, p38, JNK) or the mammalian target of rapamycin did not alter COX-2 expression in gastric cancer cells. Our data show that inhibition of GSK-3beta stimulates COX-2 expression in gastric cancer cells, which seems to be primarily facilitated via an increase in mRNA stability and to a lesser extent through enhanced transcription.

Expression of cyclooxygenase-2 is regulated by glycogen synthase kinase-3beta in gastric cancer cells.

We have investigated the expression and regulation of 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase (15-PGDH) in gastric cancer.

15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase is down-regulated in gastric cancer.

The RNA-binding protein HuR (also known as ELAV1) binds to the 3'-untranslated region of mRNAs and regulates transcript stability and translation. However, the in vivo functions of HuR are not well understood. Here, we report that murine HuR is essential for life; postnatal global deletion of Elavl1 induced atrophy of hematopoietic organs, extensive loss of intestinal villi, obstructive enterocolitis, and lethality within 10 days. Upon Elavl1 deletion, progenitor cells in the BM, thymus, and intestine underwent apoptosis, whereas quiescent stem cells and differentiated cells were unaffected. The survival defect of hematopoietic progenitor cells was cell intrinsic, as transplant of Elavl1-/- BM led to compromised hematopoietic reconstitution but did not cause lethality. Expression of p53 and its downstream effectors critical for cell death were induced in progenitor cells as HuR levels declined. In mouse embryonic fibroblasts, HuR bound to and stabilized the mRNA for Mdm2, a critical negative regulator of p53. Furthermore, cell survival was restored by expression of Mdm2 in Elavl1-/- cells, suggesting that HuR keeps p53 levels in check in progenitor cells and thereby promotes cell survival. This regulation of cell stress response by HuR in progenitor cells, which we believe to be novel, could potentially be exploited in cytotoxic anticancer therapies as well as stem cell transplant therapy.

Essential role of the RNA-binding protein HuR in progenitor cell survival in mice.

HuR is a ubiquitously expressed RNA-binding protein that modulates gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. It is predominantly nuclear, but can shuttle between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. While in the cytoplasm HuR can stabilize its target transcripts, many of which encode proteins involved in carcinogenesis. While cytoplasmic HuR expression is a marker of reduced survival in breast cancer, its role in precursor lesions of malignant diseases is unclear. To address this we explored HuR expression in atypical ductal hyperplasia (ADH) and in ductal in situ carcinomas (DCIS). We show that cytoplasmic HuR expression is elevated in both ADH and DCIS when compared to normal controls, and that this expression associated with high grade, progesterone receptor negativity and microinvasion and/or tumour-positive sentinel nodes of the DCIS. To study the mechanisms of HuR in breast carcinogenesis, HuR expression was silenced in an immortalized breast epithelial cell line (184B5Me), which led to reduction in anchorage-independent growth, increased programmed cell death and inhibition of invasion. In addition, we identified two novel target transcripts (CTGF and RAB31) that are regulated by HuR and that bind HuR protein in this cell line. Our results show that HuR is aberrantly expressed at early stages of breast carcinogenesis and that its inhibition can lead to suppression of this process. ArrayExpress Accession No. E-MEXP-3035.

Role of RNA binding protein HuR in ductal carcinoma in situ of the breast.

Cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2) expression is a marker of reduced survival in gastric cancer patients, and inhibition of Cox-2 suppresses gastrointestinal carcinogenesis in experimental animal models. To investigate the role of Cox-2 in gastric carcinogenesis in vivo, we utilized trefoil factor 1 (Tff1) deficient mice, which model the neoplastic process of the stomach by developing gastric adenomas with full penetrance. These tumors express Cox-2 protein and mRNA, and we have now investigated the effects of genetic deletion of the mouse Cox-2 gene [also known as prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (Ptgs2)] and a Cox-2 selective drug celecoxib. Our results show that genetic deletion of Cox-2 in the Tff1 deleted background resulted in reduced adenoma size and ulceration with a chronic inflammatory reaction at the site of the adenoma. To characterize the effect of Cox-2 inhibition in more detail, mice that had already developed an adenoma were fed with celecoxib for 8-14 weeks, which resulted in disruption of the adenoma that ranged from superficial erosion to deep ulcerated destruction accompanied with chronic inflammation. Importantly, mice fed with celecoxib for 16 weeks, followed by control food for 9 weeks, redeveloped a complete adenoma with no detectable inflammatory process. Finally, we determined the identity of the Cox-2 expressing cells and found them to be fibroblasts. Our results show that inhibition of Cox-2 is sufficient to reversibly disrupt gastric adenomas in mice.

Inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 causes regression of gastric adenomas in trefoil factor 1 deficient mice.

Activation of a cellular senescence program is a common response to prolonged oncogene activation or tumor suppressor loss, providing a physiological mechanism for tumor suppression in premalignant cells. The link between senescence and tumor suppression supports the hypothesis that a loss-of-function screen measuring bona fide senescence marker activation should identify candidate tumor suppressors. Using a high-content siRNA screening assay for cell morphology and proliferation measures, we identify 12 senescence-regulating kinases and determine their senescence marker signatures, including elevation of senescence-associated β-galactosidase, DNA damage and p53 or p16 (INK4a)  expression. Consistent with our hypothesis, SNP array CGH data supports loss of gene copy number of five senescence-suppressing genes across multiple tumor samples. One such candidate is the EPHA3 receptor tyrosine kinase, a gene commonly mutated in human cancer. We demonstrate that selected intracellular EPHA3 tumor-associated point mutations decrease receptor expression level and/or receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) activity. Our study therefore describes a new strategy to mine for novel candidate tumor suppressors and provides compelling evidence that EPHA3 mutations may promote tumorigenesis only when key senescence-inducing pathways have been inactivated.

A high-content cellular senescence screen identifies candidate tumor suppressors, including EPHA3.

Germline mutations in RAD51C predispose to breast and ovarian cancers. However, the mechanism of RAD51C-mediated carcinogenesis is poorly understood. We previously reported a first-generation Rad51c-knock-out mouse model, in which a spontaneous loss of both Rad51c and Trp53 together resulted in a high incidence of sebaceous carcinomas, particularly in preputial glands. Here we describe a second-generation mouse model, in which Rad51c is deleted, alone or together with Trp53, in sebaceous glands, using Cre-mediated recombination. We demonstrate that deletion of Rad51c alone is not sufficient to drive tumourigenesis and may only cause keratinization of preputial sebocytes. However, deletion of Rad51c together with Trp53 leads to tumour development at around 6 months of age, compared to 11 months for single Trp53-mutant mice. Preputial glands of double-mutant mice are also characterized by increased levels of cell proliferation and DNA damage and form multiple hyperplasias, detectable as early as 2 months of age. Our results reveal a critical synergy between Rad51c and Trp53 in tumour progression and provide a predictable in vivo model system for studying mechanisms of Rad51c-mediated carcinogenesis.

Loss of Rad51c accelerates tumourigenesis in sebaceous glands of Trp53-mutant mice.

Treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is based on histological analysis and molecular profiling of targetable driver oncogenes. Therapeutic responses are further defined by the landscape of passenger mutations, or loss of tumor suppressor genes. We report here a thorough study to address the physiological role of the putative lung cancer tumor suppressor EPH receptor A3 (EPHA3), a gene that is frequently mutated in human lung adenocarcinomas. Our data shows that homozygous or heterozygous loss of EphA3 does not alter the progression of murine adenocarcinomas that result from Kras mutation or loss of Trp53, and we detected negligible postnatal expression of EphA3 in adult wild-type lungs. Yet, EphA3 was expressed in the distal mesenchyme of developing mouse lungs, neighboring the epithelial expression of its Efna1 ligand; this is consistent with the known roles of EPH receptors in embryonic development. However, the partial loss of EphA3 leads only to subtle changes in epithelial Nkx2-1, endothelial Cd31 and mesenchymal Fgf10 RNA expression levels, and no macroscopic phenotypic effects on lung epithelial branching, mesenchymal cell proliferation, or abundance and localization of CD31-positive endothelia. The lack of a discernible lung phenotype in EphA3-null mice might indicate lack of an overt role for EPHA3 in the murine lung, or imply functional redundancy between EPHA receptors. Our study shows how biological complexity can challenge in vivo functional validation of mutations identified in sequencing efforts, and provides an incentive for the design of knock-in or conditional models to assign the role of EPHA3 mutation during lung tumorigenesis. 

The putative tumor suppressor gene EphA3 fails to demonstrate a crucial role in murine lung tumorigenesis or morphogenesis.

Lung cancers exhibit pronounced functional heterogeneity, confounding precision medicine. We studied how the cell of origin contributes to phenotypic heterogeneity following conditional expression of Kras and loss of Lkb1 (Kras;Lkb1). Using progenitor cell-type-restricted adenoviral Cre to target cells expressing surfactant protein C (SPC) or club cell antigen 10 (CC10), we show that Ad5-CC10-Cre-infected mice exhibit a shorter latency compared with Ad5-SPC-Cre cohorts. We further demonstrate that CC10 cells are the predominant progenitors of adenosquamous carcinoma (ASC) tumors and give rise to a wider spectrum of histotypes that includes mucinous and acinar adenocarcinomas. Transcriptome analysis shows ASC histotype-specific upregulation of pro-inflammatory and immunomodulatory genes. This is accompanied by an ASC-specific immunosuppressive environment, consisting of downregulated MHC genes, recruitment of CD11b Gr-1 tumor-associated neutrophils (TANs), and decreased T cell numbers. We conclude that progenitor cell-specific etiology influences the Kras;Lkb1-driven tumor histopathology spectrum and histotype-specific immune microenvironment.

Cell of Origin Links Histotype Spectrum to Immune Microenvironment Diversity in Non-small-Cell Lung Cancer Driven by Mutant Kras and Loss of Lkb1.

The paradigm of molecular histopathology is shifting from a single-marker immunohistochemistry towards multiplexed detection of markers to better understand the complex pathological processes. However, there are no systems allowing multiplexed IHC (mIHC) with high-resolution whole-slide tissue imaging and analysis, yet providing feasible throughput for routine use. We present an mIHC platform combining fluorescent and chromogenic staining with automated whole-slide imaging and integrated whole-slide image analysis, enabling simultaneous detection of six protein markers and nuclei, and automatic quantification and classification of hundreds of thousands of cells in situ in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues. In the first proof-of-concept, we detected immune cells at cell-level resolution (n = 128,894 cells) in human prostate cancer, and analysed T cell subpopulations in different tumour compartments (epithelium vs. stroma). In the second proof-of-concept, we demonstrated an automatic classification of epithelial cell populations (n = 83,558) and glands (benign vs. cancer) in prostate cancer with simultaneous analysis of androgen receptor (AR) and alpha-methylacyl-CoA (AMACR) expression at cell-level resolution. We conclude that the open-source combination of 8-plex mIHC detection, whole-slide image acquisition and analysis provides a robust tool allowing quantitative, spatially resolved whole-slide tissue cytometry directly in formalin-fixed human tumour tissues for improved characterization of histology and the tumour microenvironment.

Systems pathology by multiplexed immunohistochemistry and whole-slide digital image analysis.

A key question in precision medicine is how functional heterogeneity in solid tumours informs therapeutic sensitivity. We demonstrate that spatial characteristics of oncogenic signalling and therapy response can be modelled in precision-cut slices from Kras-driven non-small-cell lung cancer with varying histopathologies. Unexpectedly, profiling of in situ tumours demonstrated that signalling stratifies mostly according to histopathology, showing enhanced AKT and SRC activity in adenosquamous carcinoma, and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activity in adenocarcinoma. In addition, high intertumour and intratumour variability was detected, particularly of MAPK and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) complex 1 activity. Using short-term treatment of slice explants, we showed that cytotoxic responses to combination MAPK and phosphoinositide 3-kinase-mTOR inhibition correlate with the spatially defined activities of both pathways. Thus, whereas genetic drivers determine histopathology spectra, histopathology-associated and spatially variable signalling activities determine drug sensitivity. Our study is in support of spatial aspects of signalling heterogeneity being considered in clinical diagnostic settings, particularly to guide the selection of drug combinations. © 2018 The Authors. The Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

Article	Year
Expression of cyclooxygenase-2 is regulated by glycogen synthase kinase-3beta in gastric cancer cells. The Journal of biological chemistry\| PubMed ID: 16371352	2006
15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase is down-regulated in gastric cancer. Clinical cancer research : an official journal of the American Association for Cancer Research\| PubMed ID: 19584167	2009
Essential role of the RNA-binding protein HuR in progenitor cell survival in mice. The Journal of clinical investigation\| PubMed ID: 19884656	2009
Role of RNA binding protein HuR in ductal carcinoma in situ of the breast. The Journal of pathology\| PubMed ID: 21480233	2011
Inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 causes regression of gastric adenomas in trefoil factor 1 deficient mice. International journal of cancer\| PubMed ID: 22034055	2012
A high-content cellular senescence screen identifies candidate tumor suppressors, including EPHA3. Cell cycle (Georgetown, Tex.)\| PubMed ID: 23324396	2013
Loss of Rad51c accelerates tumourigenesis in sebaceous glands of Trp53-mutant mice. The Journal of pathology\| PubMed ID: 25270124	2015
The putative tumor suppressor gene EphA3 fails to demonstrate a crucial role in murine lung tumorigenesis or morphogenesis. Disease models & mechanisms\| PubMed ID: 25713296	2015
Cell of Origin Links Histotype Spectrum to Immune Microenvironment Diversity in Non-small-Cell Lung Cancer Driven by Mutant Kras and Loss of Lkb1. Cell reports\| PubMed ID: 28099846	2017
Systems pathology by multiplexed immunohistochemistry and whole-slide digital image analysis. Scientific reports\| PubMed ID: 29138507	2017
Spatial aspects of oncogenic signalling determine the response to combination therapy in slice explants from Kras-driven lung tumours. The Journal of pathology\| PubMed ID: 29443392	2018

Annabrita Hemmes

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