investigating-intestinal-barrier-breakdown-in-living-organoids

Investigating Intestinal Barrier Breakdown in Living Organoids

Organoids and three-dimensional (3D) cell cultures allow the investigation of complex biological mechanisms and regulations in vitro, which previously was ...

Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg and Universitätsklinikum Erlangen

Caspases are cysteine proteases that regulate embryonic development, cell differentiation, tissue homoeostasis, and removal of damaged and harmful cells from the intestine and other parts of the body. Caspase activity is mainly regulated at the posttranslational level, which allows their rapid activation and response to cellular stress and pathogenic stimuli. In most cell types, caspases are initially expressed as inactive proenzymes, which undergo proteolytic cleavage to become functional enzymes. Caspase dysfunction has been associated with intestinal diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and colorectal cancer. Although the roles of caspases have been studied extensively in regulation of apoptosis, recent discoveries have highlighted cell death-independent functions of this protein family. In particular, caspase-1, caspase-4, caspase-5, and caspase-12 are activated during innate immune responses and participate in the formation of the inflammasome. Caspase-8 controls necroptosis of Paneth cells and potentially the death of intestinal epithelial cells in patients with Crohn's disease and appears to be involved in mucosal inflammation. Regulators of caspase-8 might therefore be used to prevent cell death in patients with IBD. Improving our understanding of the regulation and function of caspases in the intestine might lead to new therapeutics for chronic intestinal inflammation and inflammation-associated cancer.

Complex roles of caspases in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease.

An important function of intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) is to maintain the integrity of the mucosal barrier. Inflammation challenges the integrity of the mucosal barrier and the intestinal epithelium needs to adapt to a multitude of signals in order to perform the complex process of maintenance and restitution of its barrier function. Dysfunctions in epithelial barrier integrity and restoration contribute to the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Mucosal healing has developed to a significant treatment goal in IBD. In this review, we would like to highlight physiologic and pathologic adaptations of the intestinal epithelium to inflammation, exemplified by its responses to TNF-α. A large body of literature exists that highlights the diverse effects of this cytokine on IECs. TNF-α modulates intestinal mucus secretion and constitution. TNF-α stimulation modulates paracellular flow via tight junctional control. TNF-α induces intracellular signaling cascades that determine significant cell fate decisions such as survival, cell death or proliferation. TNF-α impacts epithelial wound healing in ErbB- and Wnt-dependent pathways while also importantly guiding immune cell attraction and function. We selected important studies from recent years with a focus on functional in vivo data providing crucial insights into the complex process of intestinal homeostasis. 

Pleiotropic functions of TNF-α in the regulation of the intestinal epithelial response to inflammation.

Cell death in the intestinal epithelium has to be tightly controlled. Excessive or misplaced epithelial cell death can result in barrier dysfunction and, as a consequence thereof, uncontrolled translocation of components of the microbial flora from the lumen into the bowel wall. Susceptibility to gastrointestinal infections or chronic inflammation of the gut, as observed in patients with inflammatory bowel disease, can be the result of such dysregulation. Conversely, defects in cell death initiation might lead to an irregular accumulation of epithelial cells and cause intestinal cancer development. Until recently, activation of caspases in the intestinal epithelium was considered as a potential contributor to barrier dysfunction and as a pathogenic factor in the development of intestinal inflammation. Thus blocking of caspases appeared to be a potential therapeutic option for patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Recent studies on necroptosis however demonstrated that also inhibition of caspases can cause barrier dysfunction and intestinal inflammation. Caspase-8 on top of its functions in the extrinsic apoptosis pathway also controls necroptosis and turns out to be an essential molecule in regulating tissue homeostasis in the gut. Epithelial caspase-8 therefore emerges as a checkpoint not only of cell survival and cell death, but also as a regulator of the mode of cell death. According to this model, both excessive activity as well as a lack of activity of caspase-8 results in epithelial cell death and intestinal inflammation and caspase-8 needs to be tightly controlled to warrant tissue homeostasis in the gut. 

Regulation and pathophysiological role of epithelial turnover in the gut.

Genome-wide association studies have provided many genetic alterations, conferring susceptibility to multifactorial polygenic diseases, such as inflammatory bowel diseases. Yet, how specific genetic alterations functionally affect intestinal inflammation often remains elusive. It is noteworthy that a large overlap of genes involved in immune deficiencies with those conferring inflammatory bowel disease risk has been noted. This has provided new arguments for the debate on whether inflammatory bowel disease arises from either an excess or a deficiency in the immune system. In this review, we highlight the functional effect of an inflammatory bowel disease-risk allele, which cannot be deduced from genome-wide association studies data alone. As exemplified by the transcription factor signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), we show that a single gene can have a plethora of effects in various cell types of the gut. These effects may individually contribute to the restoration of intestinal homeostasis on the one hand or pave the way for excessive immunopathology on the other, as an inflammatory "rheo-STAT". 

Immune deficiency vs. immune excess in inflammatory bowel diseases-STAT3 as a rheo-STAT of intestinal homeostasis.

A tightly regulated balance of proliferation and cell death of intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) is essential for maintenance of gut homeostasis. Survivin is highly expressed during embryogenesis and in several cancer types, but little is known about its role in adult gut tissue. Here, we show that Survivin is specifically expressed in transit-amplifying cells and Lgr5(+) stem cells. Genetic loss of Survivin in IECs resulted in destruction of intestinal integrity, mucosal inflammation, and death of the animals. Survivin deletion was associated with decreased epithelial proliferation due to defective chromosomal segregation. Moreover, Survivin-deficient animals showed induced phosphorylation of p53 and H2AX and increased levels of cell-intrinsic apoptosis in IECs. Consequently, induced deletion of Survivin in Lgr5(+) stem cells led to cell death. In summary, Survivin is a key regulator of gut tissue integrity by regulating epithelial homeostasis in the stem cell niche. 

Loss of Survivin in Intestinal Epithelial Progenitor Cells Leads to Mitotic Catastrophe and Breakdown of Gut Immune Homeostasis.

The intestinal epithelium constitutes an efficient barrier against the microbial flora. Here, we demonstrate an unexpected function of IL-33 as a regulator of epithelial barrier functions. Mice lacking IL-33 showed decreased Paneth cell numbers and lethal systemic infection in response to Salmonella typhimurium. IL-33 was produced upon microbial challenge by a distinct population of pericryptal fibroblasts neighboring the intestinal stem cell niche. IL-33 programmed the differentiation of epithelial progenitors toward secretory IEC including Paneth and goblet cells. Finally, IL-33 suppressed Notch signaling in epithelial cells and induced expression of transcription factors governing differentiation into secretory IEC. In summary, we demonstrate that gut pericryptal fibroblasts release IL-33 to translate bacterial infection into an epithelial response to promote antimicrobial defense.

Programming of Intestinal Epithelial Differentiation by IL-33 Derived from Pericryptal Fibroblasts in Response to Systemic Infection.

Cancer cells often acquire capabilities to evade cell death induced by current chemotherapeutic treatment approaches. Caspase-8, a central initiator of death receptor-mediated apoptosis, for example, is frequently inactivated in human cancers via multiple mechanisms such as mutation. Here, we show an approach to overcome cell death resistance in -deficient colorectal cancer (CRC) by induction of necroptosis. In both a hereditary and a xenograft mouse model of -deficient CRC, second mitochondria-derived activator of caspase (SMAC) mimetic treatment induced massive cell death and led to regression of tumors. We further demonstrate that receptor-interacting protein kinase 3 (RIP3), which is highly expressed in mouse models of CRC and in a subset of human CRC cell lines, is the deciding factor of cancer cell susceptibility to SMAC mimetic-induced necroptosis. Thus, our data implicate that it may be worthwhile to selectively evaluate the efficacy of SMAC mimetic treatment in CRC patients with  deficiency in clinical trials for the development of more effective personalized therapy.

Regression of apoptosis-resistant colorectal tumors by induction of necroptosis in mice.

Viruses are present in the intestinal microflora and are currently discussed as a potential causative mechanism for the development of inflammatory bowel disease. A number of viruses, such as Human Herpesvirus-8, express homologs to cellular FLIPs, which are major contributors for the regulation of epithelial cell death. In this study we analyzed the consequences of constitutive expression of HHV8-viral FLIP in intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) in mice. Surprisingly, expression of vFlip disrupts tissue homeostasis and induces severe intestinal inflammation. Moreover vFlip mice showed reduced Paneth cell numbers, associated with excessive necrotic cell death. On a molecular level vFlip expression altered classical and alternative NFκB activation. Blocking of alternative NFκB signaling by deletion of Ikka in vivo largely protected mice from inflammation and Paneth cell loss induced by vFLIP. Collectively, our data provide functional evidence that expression of a single viral protein in IECs can be sufficient to disrupt epithelial homeostasis and to initiate chronic intestinal inflammation.

Chronic intestinal inflammation in mice expressing viral Flip in epithelial cells.

The intestinal epithelium constitutes an indispensable single-layered barrier to protect the body from invading pathogens, antigens or toxins. At the same time, beneficial nutrients and water have to be absorbed by the epithelium. To prevent development of intestinal inflammation or tumour formation, intestinal homeostasis has to be tightly controlled and therefore a strict balance between cell death and proliferation has to be maintained. The proinflammatory cytokine tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) was shown to play a striking role for the regulation of this balance in the gut. Depending on the cellular conditions, on the one hand TNFα is able to mediate cell survival by activating NFκB signalling. On the other hand, TNFα might trigger cell death, in particular caspase-dependent apoptosis but also caspase-independent programmed necrosis. By regulating these cell death and survival mechanisms, TNFα exerts a variety of beneficial functions in the intestine. However, TNFα signalling is also supposed to play a critical role for the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), infectious diseases, intestinal wound healing and tumour formation. Here we review the literature about the physiological and pathophysiological role of TNFα signalling for the maintenance of intestinal homeostasis and the benefits and difficulties of anti-TNFα treatment during IBD.

Tumour Necrosis Factor Alpha in Intestinal Homeostasis and Gut Related Diseases.

Mitochondrial homeostasis has recently emerged as a focal point in the pathophysiology of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), but conflicting data have been reported regarding its regulation. We speculated that phosphoglycerate mutase family member 5 (PGAM5), a mitochondrial protein at the intersection of multiple cell death and mitochondrial turnover pathways, might be involved in the pathogenesis of IPF.

Article	Year
Complex roles of caspases in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology\| PubMed ID: 23219999	2013
Pleiotropic functions of TNF-α in the regulation of the intestinal epithelial response to inflammation. International immunology\| PubMed ID: 24821262	2014
Regulation and pathophysiological role of epithelial turnover in the gut. Seminars in cell & developmental biology\| PubMed ID: 24973733	2014
Immune deficiency vs. immune excess in inflammatory bowel diseases-STAT3 as a rheo-STAT of intestinal homeostasis. Journal of leukocyte biology\| PubMed ID: 26232455	2016
Loss of Survivin in Intestinal Epithelial Progenitor Cells Leads to Mitotic Catastrophe and Breakdown of Gut Immune Homeostasis. Cell reports\| PubMed ID: 26832409	2016
Programming of Intestinal Epithelial Differentiation by IL-33 Derived from Pericryptal Fibroblasts in Response to Systemic Infection. Cell reports\| PubMed ID: 27184849	2016
Regression of apoptosis-resistant colorectal tumors by induction of necroptosis in mice. The Journal of experimental medicine\| PubMed ID: 28476895	2017
Chronic intestinal inflammation in mice expressing viral Flip in epithelial cells. Mucosal immunology\| PubMed ID: 30104627	2018
Tumour Necrosis Factor Alpha in Intestinal Homeostasis and Gut Related Diseases. International journal of molecular sciences\| PubMed ID: 30995806	2019
PGAM5 is a key driver of mitochondrial dysfunction in experimental lung fibrosis. Cellular and molecular life sciences : CMLS\| PubMed ID: 31168659	2019

Christoph Becker

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