exon-skipping-directly-reprogrammed-myotubes-obtained-from-human

Exon Skipping in Directly Reprogrammed Myotubes Obtained from Human Urine-Derived Cells

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), a progressive and fatal muscle disease, is caused by mutations in the DMD gene that result in the absence of dystrophin ...

National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry

Exon skipping therapy using synthetic DNA-like molecules called antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) is a promising therapeutic candidate for overcoming the dystrophin mutation that causes Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). This treatment involves splicing out the frame-disrupting segment of the dystrophin mRNA, which restores the reading frame and produces a truncated yet functional dystrophin protein. Phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomer (PMO) is the safest ASO for patients among ASOs and has recently been approved under the accelerated approval pathway by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as the first drug for DMD. Here, we describe the methodology and protocol of PMO transfection and evaluation of the exon skipping efficacy in the mdx52 mouse, an exon 52 deletion model of DMD produced by gene targeting. The mdx52 mouse model offers advantages over the mdx mouse, a spontaneous DMD model with a nonsense mutation in exon 23, in terms of the deletion in a hotspot of deletion mutations in DMD patients, the analysis of caveolae and also Dp140 and Dp260, shorter dystrophin isoforms.

Exon Skipping Therapy Using Phosphorodiamidate Morpholino Oligomers in the mdx52 Mouse Model of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.

Antisense oligonucleotide (ASO)-based drug development is gaining significant momentum following the recent FDA approval of Eteplirsen (an ASO based on phosphorodiamidate morpholino) and Spinraza (2'--methoxyethyl-phosphorothioate) in late 2016. Their attractiveness is mainly due to the backbone modifications which have improved the  characteristics of oligonucleotide drugs. Another class of ASO, based on peptide nucleic acid (PNA) chemistry, is also gaining popularity as a platform for development of gene-specific therapy for various disorders. However, the chemical synthesis of long PNAs, which are more target-specific, remains an ongoing challenge. Most of the reported methodology for the solid-phase synthesis of PNA suffer from poor coupling efficiency which limits production to short PNA sequences of less than 15 residues. Here, we have studied the effect of backbone modifications with Hmb (2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzyl) and Dmb (2,4-dimethoxybenzyl) to ameliorate difficult couplings and reduce "on-resin" aggregation. We firstly synthesized a library of PNA dimers incorporating either Hmb or Dmb and identified that Hmb is superior to Dmb in terms of its ease of removal. Subsequently, we used Hmb backbone modification to synthesize a 22-mer purine-rich PNA, targeting dystrophin RNA splicing, which could not be synthesized by standard coupling methodology. Hmb backbone modification allowed this difficult PNA to be synthesized as well as to be continued to include a cell-penetrating peptide on the same solid support. This approach provides a novel and straightforward strategy for facile solid-phase synthesis of difficult purine-rich PNA sequences.

Solid-Phase Synthesis of Difficult Purine-Rich PNAs through Selective Hmb Incorporation: Application to the Total Synthesis of Cell Penetrating Peptide-PNAs.

Exon-skipping therapy is an emerging approach that uses synthetic DNA-like molecules called antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) to splice out frame-disrupting parts of mRNA, restore the reading frame, and produce truncated yet functional proteins. Phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomer (PMO) is one of the safest among therapeutic ASOs for patients and has recently been approved under the accelerated approval program by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as the first ASO-based drug for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). Multi-exon skipping utilizing ASOs can theoretically treat 80-90% of patients with DMD. Here, we describe the systemic delivery of a cocktail of ASOs to skip exon 51 and exons 45-55 in the mdx52 mouse, an exon 52 deletion model of DMD produced by gene targeting, and the evaluation of their efficacies in vivo.

In Vivo Evaluation of Single-Exon and Multiexon Skipping in mdx52 Mice.

Phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomer (PMO)-mediated exon skipping is among the more promising approaches available for the treatment of several neuromuscular disorders, including Duchenne muscular dystrophy. The main weakness of this treatment arises from the low efficiency and sporadic nature of delivery of the neutrally charged PMO into muscle fibers, the mechanism of which is unknown.Recently, using wild-type and dystrophic mdx52 mice, we showed that muscle fibers took up PMO more efficiently during myotube formation. Interestingly, through in situ hybridization, we detected PMO mainly in embryonic myosin heavy chain-positive regenerating fibers. Next, we tested the therapeutic potential of PMO in laminin-alpha2 (laminin-α2) chain-null dy /dy  mice, a model of merosin-deficient congenital muscular dystrophy 1A (MDC1A) with active muscle regeneration. We confirmed the recovery of the laminin-α2 chain following skipping of the mutated exon 4 in dy /dy  mice, which prolonged the life span of the animals slightly. These findings support the theory that PMO entry into fibers is dependent on the developmental stage in myogenesis rather than on dystrophinless muscle membranes, and provide a platform for the future development of PMO-mediated therapies for a variety of muscular disorders, such as MDC1A, that involve active muscle regeneration. Herein, we describe the methods for PMO transfection/injection and evaluation of the efficacy of exon skipping in the laminin-α2-deficient dy /dy  mouse model both in vitro and in vivo.

Exon Skipping Using Antisense Oligonucleotides for Laminin-Alpha2-Deficient Muscular Dystrophy.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a severe muscle disorder characterised by mutations in the DMD gene. Recently, we have completed a phase I study in Japan based on systemic administration of the morpholino antisense that is amenable to exon-53 skipping, successfully. However, to achieve the effective treatment of DMD, in vitro assays on patient muscle cells to screen drugs and patient eligibility before clinical trials are indispensable. Here, we report a novel MYOD1-converted, urine-derived cells (UDCs) as a novel DMD muscle cell model. We discovered that 3-deazaneplanocin A hydrochloride, a histone methyltransferase inhibitor, could significantly promote MYOGENIN expression and myotube differentiation. We also demonstrated that our system, based on UDCs from DMD patients, could be used successfully to evaluate exon-skipping drugs targeting DMD exons including 44, 50, 51, and 55. This new autologous UDC-based disease modelling could lead to the application of precision medicine for various muscle diseases.

Modelling Duchenne muscular dystrophy in MYOD1-converted urine-derived cells treated with 3-deazaneplanocin A hydrochloride.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a devastating muscle disorder caused by frameshift mutations in the DMD gene. DMD involves cardiac muscle, and the presence of ventricular arrhythmias or congestive failure is critical for prognosis. Several novel therapeutic approaches are being evaluated in ongoing clinical trials. Among them, exon-skipping therapy to correct frameshift mutations with antisense oligonucleotides is promising; however, their therapeutic efficacies on cardiac muscle in vivo remain unknown. In this study, we established induced-pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from T cells from a DMD patient carrying a DMD-exon 46-55 deletion, differentiated the iPSCs into cardiomyocytes, and treated them with phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers. The efficiency of exon-45 skipping increased in a dose-dependent manner and enabled restoration of the DMD gene product, dystrophin. Further, Ca-imaging analysis showed a decreased number of arrhythmic cells and improved transient Ca signaling after exon skipping. Thus, exon-45 skipping may be effective for cardiac involvement in DMD patients harboring the DMD-exon 46-55 deletion.

Amelioration of intracellular Ca regulation by exon-45 skipping in Duchenne muscular dystrophy-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes.

Neuromuscular and neurodegenerative diseases are mostly modeled using genetically modified animals such as mice. However, animal models do not recapitulate all the phenotypes that are specific to human disease. This is mainly due to the genetic, anatomical and physiological difference in the neuromuscular systems of animals and humans. The emergence of direct and indirect human somatic cell reprogramming technologies may overcome this limitation because they enable the use of disease and patient-specific cellular models as enhanced platforms for drug discovery and autologous cell-based therapy. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and urine-derived stem cells (USCs) are increasingly employed to recapitulate the pathophysiology of various human diseases. Recent cell-based modeling approaches utilize highly complex differentiation systems that faithfully mimic human tissue- and organ-level dysfunctions. In this review, we discuss promising cellular models, such as USC- and iPSC-based approaches, that are currently being used to model human neuromuscular and neurodegenerative diseases.

Application of Urine-Derived Stem Cells to Cellular Modeling in Neuromuscular and Neurodegenerative Diseases.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Article	Year
Exon Skipping Therapy Using Phosphorodiamidate Morpholino Oligomers in the mdx52 Mouse Model of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.)\| PubMed ID: 29067660	2018
Solid-Phase Synthesis of Difficult Purine-Rich PNAs through Selective Hmb Incorporation: Application to the Total Synthesis of Cell Penetrating Peptide-PNAs. Frontiers in chemistry\| PubMed ID: 29094037	2017
In Vivo Evaluation of Single-Exon and Multiexon Skipping in mdx52 Mice. Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.)\| PubMed ID: 30171548	2018
Exon Skipping Using Antisense Oligonucleotides for Laminin-Alpha2-Deficient Muscular Dystrophy. Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.)\| PubMed ID: 30171567	2018
Modelling Duchenne muscular dystrophy in MYOD1-converted urine-derived cells treated with 3-deazaneplanocin A hydrochloride. Scientific reports\| PubMed ID: 30846748	2019
Amelioration of intracellular Ca regulation by exon-45 skipping in Duchenne muscular dystrophy-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes. Biochemical and biophysical research communications\| PubMed ID: 31585729	2019
Application of Urine-Derived Stem Cells to Cellular Modeling in Neuromuscular and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience\| PubMed ID: 31920531	2019
Publisher Correction: Modelling Duchenne muscular dystrophy in MYOD1-converted urine-derived cells treated with 3-deazaneplanocin A hydrochloride. Scientific reports\| PubMed ID: 32034287	2020

Hotake Takizawa

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