a-biomimetic-model-for-liver-cancer-to-study-tumor-stroma

A Biomimetic Model for Liver Cancer to Study Tumor-Stroma Interactions in a 3D Environment with Tunable Bio-Physical Properties

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a primary liver tumor developing in the wake of chronic liver disease. Chronic liver disease and inflammation leads to a ...

Uppsala University

Heparan sulfate (HS) proteoglycans, present at the plasma membrane of vascular endothelial cells, bind to the angiogenic growth factor VEGFA to modulate its signaling through VEGFR2. The interactions between VEGFA and proteoglycan co-receptors require sulfated domains in the HS chains. To date, it is essentially unknown how the formation of sulfated protein-binding domains in HS can be regulated by microRNAs. In the present study, we show that microRNA-24 (miR-24) targets NDST1 to reduce HS sulfation and thereby the binding affinity of HS for VEGFA. Elevated levels of miR-24 also resulted in reduced levels of VEGFR2 and blunted VEGFA signaling. Similarly, suppression of NDST1 using siRNA led to a reduction in VEGFR2 expression. Consequently, not only VEGFA binding, but also VEGFR2 protein expression is dependent on NDST1 function. Furthermore, overexpression of miR-24, or siRNA-mediated reduction of NDST1, reduced endothelial cell chemotaxis in response to VEGFA. These findings establish NDST1 as a target of miR-24 and demonstrate how such NDST1 suppression in endothelial cells results in reduced responsiveness to VEGFA. 

MicroRNA-24 suppression of N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase-1 (NDST1) reduces endothelial cell responsiveness to vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA).

Primary liver tumours have a high incidence and mortality. The most important forms are hepatocellular carcinoma and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma, both can occur together in the mixed phenotype hepatocellular-cholangiocarcinoma. Liver progenitor cells (LPCs) are bipotential stem cells activated in case of severe liver damage and are capable of forming both cholangiocytes and hepatocytes. Possibly, alterations in Wnt, transforming growth factor-β, Notch and hypoxia pathways in these LPCs can cause them to give rise to cancer stem cells, capable of driving tumourigenesis. In this review, we summarize and discuss current knowledge on the role of these pathways in LPC activation and differentiation during hepatocarcinogenesis. 

The roles of transforming growth factor-β, Wnt, Notch and hypoxia on liver progenitor cells in primary liver tumours (Review).

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common and deadly cancers worldwide. In ninety percent of the cases it develops as a result of chronic liver damage and it is thus a typical inflammation-related cancer characterized by the close relation between the tumor microenvironment and tumor cells. The stromal environment consists out of several cell types, including hepatic stellate cells, macrophages and endothelial cells. They are not just active bystanders in the pathogenesis of HCC, but play an important and active role in tumor initiation, progression and metastasis. Furthermore, the tumor itself influences these cells to create a background that is beneficial for sustaining tumor growth. One of the key players is the hepatic stellate cell, which is activated during liver damage and differentiates towards a myofibroblast-like cell. Activated stellate cells are responsible for the deposition of extracellular matrix, increase the production of angiogenic factors and stimulate the recruitment of macrophages. The increase of angiogenic factors (which are secreted by macrophages, tumor cells and activated stellate cells) will induce the formation of new blood vessels, thereby supplying the tumor with more oxygen and nutrients, thus supporting tumor growth and offering a passageway in the circulatory system. In addition, the secretion of chemokines by the tumor cells leads to the recruitment of tumor associated macrophages. These tumor associated macrophages are key actors of cancer-related inflammation, being the main type of inflammatory cells infiltrating the tumor environment and exerting a tumor promoting effect by secreting growth factors, stimulating angiogenesis and influencing the activation of stellate cells. This complex interplay between the several cell types involved in liver cancer emphasizes the need for targeting the tumor stroma in HCC patients. 

Targeting the tumor stroma in hepatocellular carcinoma.

Expression of liver progenitor cell (LPC) characteristics has been proposed as a negative prognostic marker in primary liver tumors. Hypoxia has been linked to activation of the Notch pathway which is responsible for activation and proliferation of LPCs and hypoxia-induced LPC activation has been shown in hepatocellular carcinoma. Our aim was to elucidate the time-dependent effects of hypoxia on the LPC niche in hepatocellular carcinoma which could aid in determining a safe time frame for use of hypoxia inducing therapies.

Time-dependent effect of hypoxia on tumor progression and liver progenitor cell markers in primary liver tumors.

ER stress results in activation of the unfolded protein response and has been implicated in the development of fibrotic diseases. In this study, we show that inhibition of the ER stress-induced IRE1α signaling pathway, using the inhibitor 4μ8C, blocks TGFβ-induced activation of myofibroblasts in vitro, reduces liver and skin fibrosis in vivo, and reverts the fibrotic phenotype of activated myofibroblasts isolated from patients with systemic sclerosis. By using IRE1α(-/-) fibroblasts and expression of IRE1α-mutant proteins lacking endoribonuclease activity, we confirmed that IRE1α plays an important role during myofibroblast activation. IRE1α was shown to cleave miR-150 and thereby to release the suppressive effect that miR-150 exerted on αSMA expression through c-Myb. Inhibition of IRE1α was also demonstrated to block ER expansion through an XBP-1-dependent pathway. Taken together, our results suggest that ER stress could be an important and conserved mechanism in the pathogenesis of fibrosis and that components of the ER stress pathway may be therapeutically relevant for treating patients with fibrotic diseases.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress enhances fibrosis through IRE1α-mediated degradation of miR-150 and XBP-1 splicing.

Fibrosis is defined as the thickening and scarring of connective tissue, usually as a consequence of tissue damage. The central nervous system (CNS) is special in the sense that fibrogenic cells are restricted to vascular and meningeal areas. Inflammation and the disruption of the blood-brain barrier can lead to the infiltration of fibroblasts and trigger fibrotic response. While the initial function of the fibrotic tissue is to restore the blood-brain barrier and to limit the site of injury, it also demolishes the structure of extracellular matrix and impedes the healing process by producing inhibitory molecules and forming a physical and biochemical barrier that prevents axon regeneration. As a major constituent in the extracellular matrix, proteoglycans participate in the neuro-inflammation, modulating the fibrotic process. In this review, we will discuss the pathophysiology of fibrosis during acute injuries of the CNS, as well as during chronic neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis and age-related neurodegeneration with focus on the functional roles of proteoglycans.

Role of proteoglycans in neuro-inflammation and central nervous system fibrosis.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a primary liver cancer that usually develops in the setting of chronic inflammation and liver damage. The hepatic microenvironment plays a crucial role in the disease development, as players such as hepatic stellate cells, resident liver macrophages (Kupffer cells), endothelial cells, extracellular matrix, and a variety of immune cells interact in highly complex and intertwined signaling pathways. A key factor in these cross-talks are platelets, whose role in cancer has gained growing evidence in recent years. Platelets have been reported to promote HCC cell proliferation and invasion, but their involvement goes beyond the direct effect on tumor cells, as they are known to play a role in pro-fibrinogenic signaling and the hepatic immune response, as well as in mediating interactions between these factors in the stroma. Anti-platelet therapy has been shown to ameliorate liver injury and improve the disease outcome. However, platelets have also been shown to play a crucial role in liver regeneration after organ damage. Therefore, the timing and microenvironmental setting need to be kept in mind when assessing the potential effect and therapeutic value of platelets in the disease progression, while further studies are needed for understanding the role of platelets in patients with HCC.

Platelets as Key Factors in Hepatocellular Carcinoma.

Hepatocellular carcinoma is often treated with a combination of doxorubicin and embolization, exposing it to high concentrations and hypoxia. Separation of the possible synergistic effect of this combination in vivo is difficult. Here, treatment with doxorubicin, under hypoxia or normoxia in different liver cancer cell lines, was evaluated. Liver cancer cells HepG2, Huh7, and SNU449 were exposed to doxorubicin, hypoxia, or doxorubicin + hypoxia with different duration. Treatment response was evaluated with cell viability, apoptosis, oxidative stress, and summarized with IC. The protein profile of a 92-biomarker panel was analyzed on cells treated with 0 or 0.1 µM doxorubicin during 6 or 72 h, under normoxia or hypoxia. Hypoxia decreased viability of HepG2 and SNU499. HepG2 was least and SNU449 most tolerant to doxorubicin treatment. Cytotoxicity of doxorubicin increased over time in HepG2 and Huh7. The combination of doxorubicin + hypoxia affected the cells differently. Normalized protein expression was lower for HepG2 than Huh7 and SNU449. Hierarchical clustering separated HepG2 from Huh7 and SNU449. These three commonly used cell lines have critically different responses to chemotherapy and hypoxia, which was reflected in their different protein expression profile. These different responses suggest that tumors can respond differently to the combination of local chemotherapy and embolization.

Liver Cancer Cell Lines Treated with Doxorubicin under Normoxia and Hypoxia: Cell Viability and Oncologic Protein Profile.

Fibrin is an essential constituent of the coagulation cascade, and the formation of hemostatic fibrin clots is central to wound healing. Fibrin clots are over time degraded into fibrin degradation products as the injured tissue is replaced by granulation tissue. Our goal was to study the role of the fibrin degradation product fragment E (FnE) in fibroblast activation and migration. We present evidence that FnE is a chemoattractant for fibroblasts and that FnE can potentiate TGF-β-induced myofibroblast formation. FnE forms a stable complex with αβ integrin, and the integrin β subunit is required both for FnE-induced fibroblast migration and for potentiation of TGF-β-induced myofibroblast formation. Finally, subcutaneous infusion of FnE in mice results in a fibrotic response in the hypodermis. These results support a model where FnE released from clots in wounded tissue promote wound healing and fibrosis by both recruitment and activation of fibroblasts. Fibrin fragment E could thus represent a therapeutic target for treatment of pathological fibrosis.

Article	Year
MicroRNA-24 suppression of N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase-1 (NDST1) reduces endothelial cell responsiveness to vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA). The Journal of biological chemistry\| PubMed ID: 23884416	2013
The roles of transforming growth factor-β, Wnt, Notch and hypoxia on liver progenitor cells in primary liver tumours (Review). International journal of oncology\| PubMed ID: 24504124	2014
Targeting the tumor stroma in hepatocellular carcinoma. World journal of hepatology\| PubMed ID: 25729472	2015
Time-dependent effect of hypoxia on tumor progression and liver progenitor cell markers in primary liver tumors. PloS one\| PubMed ID: 25793288	2015
Endoplasmic reticulum stress enhances fibrosis through IRE1α-mediated degradation of miR-150 and XBP-1 splicing. EMBO molecular medicine\| PubMed ID: 27226027	2016
Role of proteoglycans in neuro-inflammation and central nervous system fibrosis. Matrix biology : journal of the International Society for Matrix Biology\| PubMed ID: 29382609	2018
Platelets as Key Factors in Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers\| PubMed ID: 31330817	2019
Liver Cancer Cell Lines Treated with Doxorubicin under Normoxia and Hypoxia: Cell Viability and Oncologic Protein Profile. Cancers\| PubMed ID: 31330834	2019
Fibrin fragment E potentiates TGF-β-induced myofibroblast activation and recruitment. Cellular signalling\| PubMed ID: 32334027	2020

Femke Heindryckx

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