electroporation-mediated-rna-interference-method-in-odonata

Electroporation-mediated RNA Interference Method in Odonata

Dragonflies and damselflies (order Odonata) represent one of the most ancestral insects with metamorphosis, in which they change their habitat, ...

National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST)

During the maturation of insect cuticle, protein-protein and protein-chitin crosslinkages are formed by the action of diphenoloxidases. Two types of diphenoloxidases, laccases and tyrosinases, are present in the insect cuticle. In coleopteran and hymenopteran insects, laccase2 gene has been identified as encoding an enzyme principally responsible for cuticular pigmentation and hardening, whereas biological roles of laccase genes in hemimetabolous insects remain to be established. Here we identified laccase2 genes from three hemipteran stinkbugs, Riptortus pedestris (Alydidae), Nysius plebeius (Lygaeidae) and Megacopta punctatissima (Plataspidae). In R. pedestris, laccase2 gene was highly expressed in epidermal tissues prior to molting. When the gene expression was suppressed by an RNA interference technique, cuticular pigmentation after molting were blocked depending on the dose of injected double-stranded RNA targeting the laccase2 gene. Similar results were obtained for N. plebeius and M. punctatissima. In all the stinkbug species, injecting 20 ng of double-stranded RNA was sufficient to prevent the cuticular maturation. These results indicate that laccase2 gene is generally required for cuticular pigmentation in different stinkbug families, highlighting its conserved biological function across diverse insect taxa.

Laccase2 is required for cuticular pigmentation in stinkbugs.

To distinguish whether differences in gene expression between species or between individuals of the same species are caused by cis-regulatory changes or by distribution differences in trans-regulatory proteins, comparison of species-specific mRNA expression in an F1 hybrid by whole-mount in situ hybridization is a rarely used yet very powerful tool. If asymmetric expression pattern is observed for the two alleles, this implies a cis-regulatory divergence of this gene. Alternatively, if symmetric expression pattern is observed for both alleles, the change in expression of this gene is probably caused by changes in the distribution of trans-regulatory proteins. In this chapter, I describe how to prepare RNA probes, tissue samples and how to detect mRNA expression pattern using in situ hybridization. Although I choose to present here the detection of yellow-related gene (YRG) expression pattern in the larval epidermis of swallowtail butterflies, this protocol can be adapted to other species and tissues. YRG mRNA expression is correlated with interspecific differences of yellow and green larval color pattern such as V-shaped markings in swallowtail butterflies. F1 hybrids show an intermediate color pattern between parental species. In this case, both species-specific YRG mRNA showed a similar expression pattern in F1 hybrids, suggesting that the change in expression of YRG is mainly caused by changes in the distribution of trans-regulatory proteins.

Whole-mount in situ hybridization of sectioned tissues of species hybrids to detect cis-regulatory changes in gene expression pattern.

Body color change associated with sexual maturation--so-called nuptial coloration--is commonly found in diverse vertebrates and invertebrates, and plays important roles for their reproductive success. In some dragonflies, whereas females and young males are yellowish in color, aged males turn vivid red upon sexual maturation. The male-specific coloration plays pivotal roles in, for example, mating and territoriality, but molecular basis of the sex-related transition in body coloration of the dragonflies has been poorly understood. Here we demonstrate that yellow/red color changes in the dragonflies are regulated by redox states of epidermal ommochrome pigments. Ratios of reduced-form pigments to oxidized-form pigments were significantly higher in red mature males than yellow females and immature males. The ommochrome pigments extracted from the dragonflies changed color according to redox conditions in vitro: from red to yellow in the presence of oxidant and from yellow to red in the presence of reductant. By injecting the reductant solution into live insects, the yellow-to-red color change was experimentally reproduced in vivo in immature males and mature females. Discontinuous yellow/red mosaicism was observed in body coloration of gynandromorphic dragonflies, suggesting a cell-autonomous regulation over the redox states of the ommochrome pigments. Our finding extends the mechanical repertoire of pigment-based body color change in animals, and highlights an impressively simple molecular mechanism that regulates an ecologically important color trait.

Redox alters yellow dragonflies into red.

The bean bug Riptortus pedestris possesses a specialized symbiotic organ in a posterior region of the midgut, where numerous crypts harbor extracellular betaproteobacterial symbionts of the genus Burkholderia. Second instar nymphs orally acquire the symbiont from the environment, and the symbiont infection benefits the host by facilitating growth and by occasionally conferring insecticide resistance. Here we performed comparative transcriptomic analyses of insect genes expressed in symbiotic and non-symbiotic regions of the midgut dissected from Burkholderia-infected and uninfected R. pedestris. Expression sequence tag analysis of cDNA libraries and quantitative reverse transcription PCR identified a number of insect genes expressed in symbiosis- or aposymbiosis-associated patterns. For example, genes up-regulated in symbiotic relative to aposymbiotic individuals, including many cysteine-rich secreted protein genes and many cathepsin protease genes, are likely to play a role in regulating the symbiosis. Conversely, genes up-regulated in aposymbiotic relative to symbiotic individuals, including a chicken-type lysozyme gene and a defensin-like protein gene, are possibly involved in regulation of non-symbiotic bacterial infections. Our study presents the first transcriptomic data on gut symbiotic organ of a stinkbug, which provides initial clues to understanding of molecular mechanisms underlying the insect-bacterium gut symbiosis and sheds light on several intriguing commonalities between endocellular and extracellular symbiotic associations.

Gene expression in gut symbiotic organ of stinkbug affected by extracellular bacterial symbiont.

Dragonflies are colorful and large-eyed animals strongly dependent on color vision. Here we report an extraordinary large number of opsin genes in dragonflies and their characteristic spatiotemporal expression patterns. Exhaustive transcriptomic and genomic surveys of three dragonflies of the family Libellulidae consistently identified 20 opsin genes, consisting of 4 nonvisual opsin genes and 16 visual opsin genes of 1 UV, 5 short-wavelength (SW), and 10 long-wavelength (LW) type. Comprehensive transcriptomic survey of the other dragonflies representing an additional 10 families also identified as many as 15-33 opsin genes. Molecular phylogenetic analysis revealed dynamic multiplications and losses of the opsin genes in the course of evolution. In contrast to many SW and LW genes expressed in adults, only one SW gene and several LW genes were expressed in larvae, reflecting less visual dependence and LW-skewed light conditions for their lifestyle under water. In this context, notably, the sand-burrowing or pit-dwelling species tended to lack SW gene expression in larvae. In adult visual organs: (i) many SW genes and a few LW genes were expressed in the dorsal region of compound eyes, presumably for processing SW-skewed light from the sky; (ii) a few SW genes and many LW genes were expressed in the ventral region of compound eyes, probably for perceiving terrestrial objects; and (iii) expression of a specific LW gene was associated with ocelli. Our findings suggest that the stage- and region-specific expressions of the diverse opsin genes underlie the behavior, ecology, and adaptation of dragonflies. 

Extraordinary diversity of visual opsin genes in dragonflies.

Dragonflies including damselflies are colorful and large-eyed insects, which show remarkable sexual dimorphism, color transition, and color polymorphism. Recent comprehensive visual transcriptomics has unveiled an extraordinary diversity of opsin genes within the lineage of dragonflies. These opsin genes are differentially expressed between aquatic larvae and terrestrial adults, as well as between dorsal and ventral regions of adult compound eyes. Recent topics of color formation in dragonflies are also outlined. Non-iridescent blue color is caused by coherent light scattering from the quasiordered nanostructures, whereas iridescent color is produced by multilayer structures. Wrinkles or wax crystals sometimes enhances multilayer structural colors. Sex-specific and stage-specific color differences in red dragonflies is attributed to redox states of ommochrome pigments.

Color vision and color formation in dragonflies.

Editorial overview: Molecular physiology: molecular basis of insect colors and patterns.

The order Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) comprises diurnal insects with well-developed vision, showing diverse colors in adult wings and bodies. It is one of the most ancestral winged insect groups. Because Odonata species use visual cues to recognize each other, color patterns have been investigated from ecological and evolutionary viewpoints. Here we review the recent progress on molecular mechanisms of pigmentation, especially focused on light-blue coloration. Results from histology and pigment analysis showed that ommochrome pigments on the proximal layer and pteridine pigments on the distal layer of the epidermis are essential for light-blue coloration. We also summarize genes involved in the biosynthesis of three major insect pigments conserved across insects and discuss that gene-functional analysis deserves future studies.

Article	Year
Laccase2 is required for cuticular pigmentation in stinkbugs. Insect biochemistry and molecular biology\| PubMed ID: 21167282	2011
Whole-mount in situ hybridization of sectioned tissues of species hybrids to detect cis-regulatory changes in gene expression pattern. Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.)\| PubMed ID: 22065447	2011
Redox alters yellow dragonflies into red. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 22778425	2012
Gene expression in gut symbiotic organ of stinkbug affected by extracellular bacterial symbiont. PloS one\| PubMed ID: 23691247	2013
Extraordinary diversity of visual opsin genes in dragonflies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 25713365	2015
Color vision and color formation in dragonflies. Current opinion in insect science\| PubMed ID: 27720071	2016
Editorial overview: Molecular physiology: molecular basis of insect colors and patterns. Current opinion in insect science\| PubMed ID: 27720083	2016
Pigmentation and color pattern diversity in Odonata. Current opinion in genetics & development\| PubMed ID: 33482606	2021

Ryo Futahashi

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