applications-immobilization-drosophila-tissues-with-fibrin-clots-for

Applications of Immobilization of <em>Drosophila</em> Tissues with Fibrin Clots for Live Imaging

Drosophila is an important model system to study a vast range of biological questions. Various organs and tissues from different developmental stages of ...

University of Dundee

Establishing and maintaining cell fate in the right place at the right time is a key requirement for normal tissue maintenance. Stem cells are at the core of this process. Understanding how stem cells balance self-renewal and production of differentiating cells is key for understanding the defects that underpin many diseases. Both, external cues from the environment and cell intrinsic mechanisms can control the outcome of stem cell division. The role of the orientation of stem cell division has emerged as an important mechanism for specifying cell fate decisions. Although, the alignment of cell divisions can dependent on spatial cues from the environment, maintaining stemness is not always linked to positioning of stem cells in a particular microenvironment or `niche'. Alternate mechanisms that could contribute to cellular memory include differential segregation of centrosomes in asymmetrically dividing cells. 

Stem cell decisions: a twist of fate or a niche market?

Drosophila larval neuroblasts (NBs) are an excellent model for asymmetric division and cell cycle studies in general. For decades, visualizing relevant structures like centrosomes, chromosomes, or the mitotic spindle relied exclusively on immunofluorescence on fix samples. More recently, improvements on sensitivity and acquisition speed of different confocal systems have made it possible to acquire time-resolved images of combined fluorescent reporters from single larval NBs. Here, we provide protocols to visualize centrosomes and other organelles from both primary cultures of isolated single NBs and ex vivo, whole-mounted larval brains. 

Time-lapse recording of centrosomes and other organelles in Drosophila neuroblasts.

How cells position their proteins is a key problem in cell biology. Targeting mRNAs to distinct regions of the cytoplasm contributes to protein localization by providing local control over translation. Here, we reveal that an interdependence of a protein and cognate mRNA maintains asymmetric protein distribution in mitotic Drosophila neural stem cells. We tagged endogenous mRNA or protein products of the gene miranda that is required for fate determination with GFP. We find that the mRNA localizes like the protein it encodes in a basal crescent in mitosis. We then used GFP-specific nanobodies fused to localization domains to alter the subcellular distribution of the GFP-tagged mRNA or protein. Altering the localization of the mRNA resulted in mislocalization of the protein and vice versa. Protein localization defects caused by mislocalization of the cognate mRNA were rescued by introducing untagged mRNA coding for mutant non-localizable protein. Therefore, by combining the MS2 system and subcellular nanobody expression, we uncovered that maintenance of Mira asymmetric localization requires interaction with the cognate mRNA.

Maintenance of Miranda Localization in Drosophila Neuroblasts Involves Interaction with the Cognate mRNA.

It has been a long-standing question as to whether the activation of Notch by its ligands occurs in a specific region of the plasma membrane. A study now shows that this is indeed the case in the Drosophila sensory organ precursor cell lineage.

Notch Signaling: Where Is the Action?

Cell fate assignment in the nervous system of vertebrates and invertebrates often hinges on the unequal distribution of molecules during progenitor cell division. We address asymmetric fate determinant localization in the developing  nervous system, specifically the control of the polarized distribution of the cell fate adapter protein Miranda. We reveal a step-wise polarization of Miranda in larval neuroblasts and find that Miranda's dynamics and cortical association are differently regulated between interphase and mitosis. In interphase, Miranda binds to the plasma membrane. Then, before nuclear envelope breakdown, Miranda is phosphorylated by aPKC and displaced into the cytoplasm. This clearance is necessary for the subsequent establishment of asymmetric Miranda localization. After nuclear envelope breakdown, actomyosin activity is required to maintain Miranda asymmetry. Therefore, phosphorylation by aPKC and differential binding to the actomyosin network are required at distinct phases of the cell cycle to polarize fate determinant localization in neuroblasts.

aPKC-mediated displacement and actomyosin-mediated retention polarize Miranda in  neuroblasts.

Spindly was originally identified as a specific regulator of Dynein activity at the kinetochore. In early prometaphase, Spindly recruits the Dynein/Dynactin complex, promoting the establishment of stable kinetochore-microtubule interactions and progression into anaphase. While details of Spindly function in mitosis have been worked out in cultured human cells and in the  zygote, the function of Spindly within the context of an organism has not yet been addressed. Here, we present loss- and gain-of-function studies of Spindly using transgenic RNAi in . Knock-down of Spindly in the female germ line results in mitotic arrest during embryonic cleavage divisions. We investigated the requirements of Spindly protein domains for its localisation and function, and found that the carboxy-terminal region controls Spindly localisation in a cell-type specific manner. Overexpression of Spindly in the female germ line is embryonic lethal and results in altered egg morphology. To determine whether Spindly plays a role in post-mitotic cells, we altered Spindly protein levels in migrating cells and found that ovarian border cell migration is sensitive to the levels of Spindly protein. Our study uncovers novel functions of Spindly and a differential, functional requirement for its carboxy-terminal region in .

Requirement of the Dynein-Adaptor Spindly for Mitotic and Post-Mitotic Functions in Drosophila.

Controlling the orientation of cell division is important in the context of cell fate choices and tissue morphogenesis. However, the mechanisms providing the required positional information remain incompletely understood. Here we use stem cells of the Drosophila larval brain that stably maintain their axis of polarity and division between cell cycles to identify cues that orient cell division. Using live cell imaging of cultured brains, laser ablation and genetics, we reveal that division axis maintenance relies on their last-born daughter cell. We propose that, in addition to known intrinsic cues, stem cells in the developing fly brain are polarized by an extrinsic signal. We further find that division axis maintenance allows neuroblasts to maximize their contact area with glial cells known to provide protective and proliferative signals to neuroblasts.

The last-born daughter cell contributes to division orientation of Drosophila larval neuroblasts.

Studying the function of proteins using genetics in cycling cells is complicated by the fact that there is often a delay between gene inactivation and the time point of phenotypic analysis. This is particularly true when studying kinases that have pleiotropic functions and multiple substrates.  neuroblasts (NBs) are rapidly dividing stem cells and an important model system for the study of cell polarity. Mutations in multiple kinases cause NB polarity defects, but their precise functions at particular time points in the cell cycle are unknown. Here, we use chemical genetics and report the generation of an analogue-sensitive allele of  atypical Protein Kinase C (aPKC). We demonstrate that the resulting mutant aPKC kinase can be specifically inhibited  and  Acute inhibition of aPKC during NB polarity establishment abolishes asymmetric localization of Miranda, whereas its inhibition during NB polarity maintenance does not in the time frame of normal mitosis. However, aPKC helps to sharpen the pattern of Miranda, by keeping it off the apical and lateral cortex after nuclear envelope breakdown.

A chemical-genetics approach to study the role of atypical Protein Kinase C in .

 () is the most frequently mutated gene in colorectal cancer. APC negatively regulates the Wnt signaling pathway by promoting the degradation of β-catenin, but the extent to which APC exerts Wnt/β-catenin-independent tumor-suppressive activity is unclear. To identify interaction partners and β-catenin-independent targets of endogenous, full-length APC, we applied label-free and multiplexed tandem mass tag-based mass spectrometry. Affinity enrichment-mass spectrometry identified more than 150 previously unidentified APC interaction partners. Moreover, our global proteomic analysis revealed that roughly half of the protein expression changes that occur in response to APC loss are independent of β-catenin. Combining these two analyses, we identified Misshapen-like kinase 1 (MINK1) as a putative substrate of an APC-containing destruction complex. We validated the interaction between endogenous MINK1 and APC and further confirmed the negative, and β-catenin-independent, regulation of MINK1 by APC. Increased Mink1/Msn levels were also observed in mouse intestinal tissue and  follicular cells expressing mutant Apc/APC when compared with wild-type tissue/cells. Collectively, our results highlight the extent and importance of Wnt-independent APC functions in epithelial biology and disease. IMPLICATIONS: The tumor-suppressive function of APC, the most frequently mutated gene in colorectal cancer, is mainly attributed to its role in β-catenin/Wnt signaling. Our study substantially expands the list of APC interaction partners and reveals that approximately half of the changes in the cellular proteome induced by loss of APC function are mediated by β-catenin-independent mechanisms.

Identification of Endogenous Adenomatous Polyposis Coli Interaction Partners and β-Catenin-Independent Targets by Proteomics.

Asymmetric cell division (ACD) is the fundamental process through which one cell divides into two cells with different fates. In animals, it is crucial for the generation of cell-type diversity and for stem cells, which use ACD both to self-renew and produce one differentiating daughter cell. One of the most prominent model systems of ACD, Drosophila neuroblasts, relies on the PAR complex, a conserved set of proteins governing cell polarity in animals. Here, we focus on recent advances in our understanding of the mechanisms that control the orientation of the neuroblast polarity axis, how the PAR complex is positioned, and how its activity may regulate division orientation and cell fate determinant localization and discuss how important findings about the composition polarity complexes in other models may apply to neuroblasts.

Article	Year
Stem cell decisions: a twist of fate or a niche market? Seminars in cell & developmental biology\| PubMed ID: 24613913	2014
Time-lapse recording of centrosomes and other organelles in Drosophila neuroblasts. Methods in cell biology\| PubMed ID: 26175445	2015
Maintenance of Miranda Localization in Drosophila Neuroblasts Involves Interaction with the Cognate mRNA. Current biology : CB\| PubMed ID: 28690114	2017
Notch Signaling: Where Is the Action? Current biology : CB\| PubMed ID: 28787607	2017
aPKC-mediated displacement and actomyosin-mediated retention polarize Miranda in neuroblasts. eLife\| PubMed ID: 29364113	2018
Requirement of the Dynein-Adaptor Spindly for Mitotic and Post-Mitotic Functions in Drosophila. Journal of developmental biology\| PubMed ID: 29615558	2018
The last-born daughter cell contributes to division orientation of Drosophila larval neuroblasts. Nature communications\| PubMed ID: 30218051	2018
A chemical-genetics approach to study the role of atypical Protein Kinase C in . Development (Cambridge, England)\| PubMed ID: 30635282	2019
Identification of Endogenous Adenomatous Polyposis Coli Interaction Partners and β-Catenin-Independent Targets by Proteomics. Molecular cancer research : MCR\| PubMed ID: 31160382	2019
Where does asymmetry come from? Illustrating principles of polarity and asymmetry establishment in Drosophila neuroblasts. Current opinion in cell biology\| PubMed ID: 31698250	2020

Jens Januschke

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