a-triple-culture-cell-system-modeling-the-human-blood-brain-barrier

A Triple Culture Cell System Modeling the Human Blood-Brain Barrier

The delivery of drugs to the brain remains a challenge due to the blood-brain barrier's (BBB) highly specific and restrictive properties, which controls ...

Queen Mary University of London, Department of Chemistry

The quest for synthetic biomimetic catalysts able to complement the activity of enzymes has attracted substantial research efforts, and the molecular imprinting approach is one of the attractive techniques that are currently being investigated. In the last 3 years, there has been considerable interest in studying in greater detail the parameters that control and influence the catalytic activity of imprinted polymers and applying molecular imprinting to a wider range of polymeric matrices. This article reports on some of the interesting examples available in the literature regarding the use of metal-containing polymers, microgels and nanogels and thermoresponsive polymers.

Molecularly imprinted polymers as biomimetic catalysts.

Molecular imprinting has grown considerably over the last decade with more and more applications being developed. The use of this approach for the generation of enzyme-mimics is here reviewed with a particular focus on the most recent achievements using different polymer formats such as microgels and nanogels, beads, membranes and also silica nanoparticles.

Microgels and nanogels with catalytic activity.

The field of imaging has developed considerably over the past decade and recent advances in the area of nanotechnology, in particular nanomaterials, have opened new opportunities. Polymeric nanoparticles are particularly interesting and a number of novel materials, characterized by stimuli-responsive characteristics and fluorescent tagging, have allowed visualization, intracellular labeling and real-time tracking. In some of the latest applications the nanoparticles have been used for imagining of tumor cells, both in vivo and ex vivo. 

Smart Polymeric Nanoparticles as Emerging Tools for Imaging--The Parallel Evolution of Materials.

Recent advances in nanomaterials have identified nanogels as an excellent matrix for novel biomimetic catalysts using the molecular imprinting approach. Polymerisable Co-cyclen complexes with phosphonate and carbonate templates have been prepared, fully characterised and used to obtain nanogels that show high activity and turnover with low catalytic load, compared to the free complex, in the hydrolysis of 4-nitrophenyl phosphate, a nerve agent simulant. This work demonstrates that the chemical structure of the template has an impact on the coordination geometry and oxidation state of the metal centre in the polymerisable complex resulting in very significant changes in the catalytic properties of the polymeric matrix. Both pseudo-octahedral cobalt(III) and trigonal-bipyramidal cobalt(II) structures have been used for the synthesis of imprinted nanogels, and the catalytic data demonstrate that: i) the imprinted nanogels can be used in 15 % load and show turnover; ii) the structural differences in the polymeric matrices resulting from the imprinting approach with different templates are responsible for the molecular recognition capabilities and the catalytic activity. Nanogel P1, imprinted with the carbonate template, shows >50 % higher catalytic activity than P2 imprinted with the phosphonate. 

Incorporation of Cobalt-Cyclen Complexes into Templated Nanogels Results in Enhanced Activity.

The development of effective transdermal drug delivery systems based on nanosized polymers requires a better understanding of the behaviour of such nanomaterials at interfaces. N-Isopropylacrylamide-based nanogels synthesized with different percentages of N,N'-methylenebisacrylamide as cross-linker, ranging from 10 to 30%, were characterized at physiological temperature at the air/water interface, using neutron reflectivity (NR), with isotopic contrast variation, and surface tension measurements; this allowed us to resolve the adsorbed amount and the volume fraction of nanogels at the interface. A large conformational change for the nanogels results in strong deformations at the interface. As the percentage of cross-linker incorporated in the nanogels becomes higher, more rigid matrices are obtained, although less deformed, and the amount of adsorbed nanogels is increased. The data provide the first experimental evidence of structural changes of nanogels as a function of the degree of cross-linking at the air/water interface. 

Smart nanogels at the air/water interface: structural studies by neutron reflectivity.

A signalling molecularly imprinted polymer was synthesised for easy detection of tamoxifen and its metabolites. 6-Vinylcoumarin-4-carboxylic acid (VCC) was synthesised from 4-bromophenol to give a fluorescent monomer, designed to switch off upon binding of tamoxifen. Clomiphene, a chlorinated analogue, was used as the template for the imprinting, and its ability to quench the coumarin fluorescence when used in a 1:1 ratio was demonstrated. Tamoxifen and 4-hydroxytamoxifen were also shown to quench coumarin fluorescence. Imprinted and non-imprinted polymers were synthesised using VCC, methacrylic acid as a backbone monomer and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate as cross-linker, and were ground and sieved to particle sizes ranging between 45 and 25 μm. Rebinding experiments demonstrate that the imprinted polymer shows very strong affinity for both clomiphene and tamoxifen, while the non-imprinted polymer shows negligible rebinding. The fluorescence of the imprinted polymer is quenched by clomiphene, tamoxifen and 4-hydroxytamoxifen. The switch off in fluorescence of the imprinted polymer under these conditions could also be detected under a UV lamp with the naked eye, making this matrix suitable for applications when coupled with a sample preparation system. 

Smart coumarin-tagged imprinted polymers for the rapid detection of tamoxifen.

Gender bias is widespread and needs to be acknowledged and addressed by the scientific community. In this Guest Editorial, M. Resmini, Professor of Materials Chemistry at the Queen Mary University of London, describes how supervisors can play an important role in addressing the ‘leaky pipeline′, namely, the progressive loss of capable women from STEM disciplines.

The 'Leaky Pipeline'.

Several fluorescent molecularly imprinted nanogels for the detection of the anticancer drug sunitinib were synthesized and characterized. A selection of functional monomers based on different aminoacids and coumarin allowed isolation of polymers with very good rebinding properties and sensitivities. The direct detection of sunitinib in human plasma was successfully demonstrated by fluorescence quenching of the coumarin-based nanogels. The plasma sample simply diluted in DMSO allowed the recovery of various amounts of sunitib, as determined by an averaged calibration curve. The LOD was 400nM, with within-run variability <9%, day to day variability <5%, and good accuracy in the recovery of sunitinib from spiked samples. 

Fluorescent molecularly imprinted nanogels for the detection of anticancer drugs in human plasma.

Nanomaterials are emerging as strong candidates for applications in drug delivery and offer an alternative platform to modulate the differentiation and activity of neural stem cells. Herein we report the synthesis and characterization of two different classes of polymeric nanoparticles: N-isopropylacrylamide-based thermoresponsive nanogels RM1 and P(TEGA)-b-P(LA) nano-micelles RM2. We covalently linked the nanoparticles with fluorescent tags and demonstrate their ability to be internalized and tracked in neural stem cells from the postnatal subventricular zone, without affecting their proliferation, multipotency and differentiation characteristics up to 150 μg ml. The difference in chemical structure of RM1 and RM2 does not appear to impact toxicity however it influences the loading capacity. Nanogels RM1 loaded with retinoic acid improve solubility of the drug which is released at 37 °C, resulting in an increase in the number of neurons, comparable to what can be obtained with a solution of the free drug solubilised with a small percentage of DMSO.

Fluorescent polymeric nanovehicles for neural stem cell modulation.

We have used neutron reflectivity (NR) measurements in combination with dynamic light scattering (DLS), surface tension and ellipsometry, to study the adsorption behaviour at the air/water interface of N-isopropylacrylamide-based nanogels as a function of concentration. The data provide clear evidence that the nanogels are adsorbed at the interface in a strongly deformed shape and forming a multi-layer where the thickness increases with nanogel concentration in the bulk. The combination of surface characterisation techniques and bulk studies indicate that interfacial film formation is preferred over bulk aggregation. This observation at the air/water interface supports the Derjaguin prediction, that a sphere's interaction with a plane (the thick adsorbed nanogel layer at interface) is much larger than nanogel-nanogel (sphere-sphere) association in the bulk. These findings, in particular the changes in conformations and the thick layer adsorption at the interface as a function of concentration, impact significantly on a number of applications for which nanogels are currently being investigated. These results contribute to the understanding of the behaviour of soft colloids at the interfaces.

Adsorption versus aggregation of NIPAM nanogels: new insight into their behaviour at the air/water interface as a function of concentration.

Understanding the interaction of nanoparticles (NP) with ceramide lipids is important in developing strategies to overcome the formidable obstacle that is skin. This paper presents studies of interactions between N-isopropylacrylamide nanogels, crosslinked with 30% N,N'-methylenebisacrylamide, and model ceramide lipid monolayers at the air-water interface as a function of temperature. In the case of the mixed ceramide/cholesterol/behenic acid monolayer, the interaction of nanogels with the ceramide was strongly mediated by the fatty acids. This interaction between nanogels and monolayer components is dominated by hydrophobic-hydrophobic binding. The data show the important intermediary role of the fatty acid in facilitating transmembrane transport. For a pure ceramide lipid monolayer, the neutron reflectivity (NR), Brewster angle microscopy (BAM) and surface pressure results showed a lipid-nanogel complex formation and the subsequent depletion/solubilisation of the lipids from the interface when the area per molecule for the lipid was increased from 42 to 44 Å.

Interaction of thermal responsive NIPAM nanogels with model lipid monolayers at the air-water interface.

In dermal drug delivery, the influence of the chemical structure of the carriers on their penetration mechanisms is not yet fully understood. This is a key requirement in order to design highly efficient delivery systems. In this study, neutron reflectivity is used to provide insights into the interactions between thermoresponsive N-isopropylacrylamide based nanogels, cross-linked with 10%, 20% and 30% N,N'-methylenebisacrylamide, and skin lipid multi-bilayers models. Ceramide lipid multi-bilayers and ceramide/cholesterol/behenic acid mixed lipid multi-bilayers were used for this work. The results indicated that in both multi-bilayers the lipids were depleted by the nanogels mainly through hydrophobic interactions. The ability of nanogels to associate with skin lipids to form water-dispersible complexes was found to be a function of the percentage cross-linker. An enhanced depletion of lipids was further observed in the presence of benzyl alcohol, a well-known skin penetration enhancer.

Interactions of NIPAM nanogels with model lipid multi-bilayers: A neutron reflectivity study.

The recent discovery of the role of adenosine-analogues as neuroprotectants and cognitive enhancers has sparked interest in these molecules as new therapeutic drugs. Understanding the behavior of these molecules in solution and predicting their ability to self-assemble will accelerate new discoveries. We propose a computational approach based on density functional theory, a polarizable continuum solvation description of the aqueous environment, and an efficient search procedure to probe the potential energy surface, to determine the structure and thermodynamic stability of molecular clusters of adenosine analogues in solution, using caffeine as a model. The method was validated as a tool for the prediction of the impact of small structural variations on self-assembly using paraxanthine. The computational results were supported by isothermal titration calorimetry experiments. The thermodynamic parameters enabled the quantification of the actual percentage of dimer present in solution as a function of concentration. The data suggest that both caffeine and paraxanthine are present at concentrations comparable to the ones found in biological samples.

Prediction of self-assembly of adenosine analogues in solution: a computational approach validated by isothermal titration calorimetry.

Covalently crosslinked nanogels are widely explored as drug delivery systems and sensors. Radical polymerization provides a simple, inexpensive, and broadly applicable approach for their preparation, although the random nature of the reaction requires careful study of the final chemical composition. We demonstrate how the different reactivities of the monomers influence the total degree of incorporation into the polymer matrix and the role played by the experimental parameters in maximizing polymerization efficiency. Nanogels based on -isopropylacrylamide, --propylacrylamide, and acrylamide crosslinked with -methylenebisacrylamide were included in this study, in combination with functional monomers -acryloyl-l-proline, 2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid, and 4-vinyl-1-imidazole. Total monomer concentration and initiator quantities are determining parameters for maximizing monomer conversions and chemical yields. The results show that the introduction of functional monomers, changes in the chemical structure of the polymerizable unit, and the addition of templating molecules can all have an effect on the polymerization kinetics. This can significantly impact the final composition of the matrices and their chemical structure, which in turn influence the morphology and properties of the nanogels.

Covalently Crosslinked Nanogels: An NMR Study of the Effect of Monomer Reactivity on Composition and Structure.

Therapeutic drug monitoring is used in the clinical setting in the optimisation of dosages to overcome inter-patient pharmacokinetic variability, increasing efficacy whilst reducing toxicity. Imatinib is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, displaying large variations in plasma concentrations that impact therapeutic success. As a result, imatinib has been the focus in the development of innovative techniques, aimed at its quantification in plasma. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry is currently the gold standard; however, cost and availability of the equipment limit its wider application in clinical settings. Recent advances in the field have shown Raman spectroscopy and electrochemistry to be key techniques for the development of promising analytical tools. This article reviews the latest advances towards less costly, more portable solutions that can be used at the point of care. Graphical abstract.

Article	Year
Molecularly imprinted polymers as biomimetic catalysts. Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry\| PubMed ID: 22245980	2012
Microgels and nanogels with catalytic activity. Topics in current chemistry\| PubMed ID: 22415417	2012
Smart Polymeric Nanoparticles as Emerging Tools for Imaging--The Parallel Evolution of Materials. Chemistry (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany)\| PubMed ID: 26563829	2016
Incorporation of Cobalt-Cyclen Complexes into Templated Nanogels Results in Enhanced Activity. Chemistry (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany)\| PubMed ID: 26661923	2016
Smart nanogels at the air/water interface: structural studies by neutron reflectivity. Nanoscale\| PubMed ID: 26697736	2016
Smart coumarin-tagged imprinted polymers for the rapid detection of tamoxifen. Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry\| PubMed ID: 26862049	2016
The 'Leaky Pipeline'. Chemistry (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany)\| PubMed ID: 26878818	2016
Fluorescent molecularly imprinted nanogels for the detection of anticancer drugs in human plasma. Biosensors & bioelectronics\| PubMed ID: 27497198	2016
Fluorescent polymeric nanovehicles for neural stem cell modulation. Nanoscale\| PubMed ID: 27722391	2016
Adsorption versus aggregation of NIPAM nanogels: new insight into their behaviour at the air/water interface as a function of concentration. Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP\| PubMed ID: 28638903	2017
Interaction of thermal responsive NIPAM nanogels with model lipid monolayers at the air-water interface. Journal of colloid and interface science\| PubMed ID: 29482101	2018
Interactions of NIPAM nanogels with model lipid multi-bilayers: A neutron reflectivity study. Journal of colloid and interface science\| PubMed ID: 30390585	2019
Prediction of self-assembly of adenosine analogues in solution: a computational approach validated by isothermal titration calorimetry. Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP\| PubMed ID: 30644470	2019
Covalently Crosslinked Nanogels: An NMR Study of the Effect of Monomer Reactivity on Composition and Structure. Polymers\| PubMed ID: 30960337	2019
Towards point of care systems for the therapeutic drug monitoring of imatinib. Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry\| PubMed ID: 32166445	2020

Marina Resmini

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