canine-intestinal-organoids-in-a-dual-chamber-permeable-support-system

Canine Intestinal Organoids in a Dual-Chamber Permeable Support System

The permeable support system is typically used in conjunction with traditional two-dimensional (2D) cell lines as an in vitro tool for evaluating the oral ...

Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration

Models predictive of intestinal drug absorption are important in drug development to identify compounds with promising biopharmaceutical properties. Since permeability is a factor affecting absorption, cell culture models (e.g., Caco-2, MDCK) have been developed to predict drug transport from the intestinal lumen into the bloodstream. The differences as to how the assays are performed, along with heterogeneity of the cell lines, have lead to different permeability values for the same drug. Transport and metabolic properties of cultured cells can vary due to culture conditions, seeding density, passage number, confluency, filter support, monolayer age, and stage of differentiation. During the transport experiment, cell absorption properties can change due to the composition and pH of the transport buffer, solute concentration and solubility, temperature, additives and/or cosolvents, agitation, sampling schedule, sink conditions, and analytical methods. Such variability within a laboratory can be avoided by characterizing a cell culture method and setting acceptance criteria in terms of monolayer integrity, passive transport, and active transport. The repeated evaluation of reference compounds will then facilitate intra-laboratory comparisons.

Variability in Caco-2 and MDCK cell-based intestinal permeability assays.

Effect of ethanol on opioid drug permeability through caco-2 cell monolayers.

The aim of this study was to evaluate whether temperature stress conditions affect the cellular uptake of liposomal doxorubicin, Doxil (DXL; Ortho Biotech, Raritan, New Jersey, USA), and liposomal daunorubicin, DaunoXome (DXM; Gilead Sciences, San Dimas, California, USA). Uptake of these cytotoxic compounds is essential for their pharmacological effect. Commercially available DXL and DXM were stressed for 6 days under altered temperature conditions of 22 and 50 degrees C, as compared to storage in their buffered formulations at the labeled temperature of 4 degrees C. The cellular uptake of the liposomal drugs was measured by fluorescence intensity in human ovarian SKOV-3 and murine macrophage J774A.1 cell lines following a 4-hour exposure to DXL or DXM. There was a 5- to 10-fold increase in the cellular uptake of DXL and DXM in both cell lines after stress exposure to 50 degrees C. Exposure of DXL to 22 degrees C stress decreased its uptake by SKOV-3 cells, when compared to exposure of DXL to 4 degrees C control conditions. A cell-based uptake assay may provide a means to assess changes in the functional activity of liposomes in conjunction with evaluation of their physicochemical properties in order to evaluate the stability and integrity of liposomes.

Effect of altered temperature storage on the in vitro cellular uptake of liposome drug products.

Experimental models of permeability in animals, excised tissues, cell monolayers, and artificial membranes are important during drug discovery and development as permeability is one of several factors affecting the intestinal absorption of oral drug products. The utility of these models is demonstrated by their ability to predict a drug's in vivo intestinal absorption. Within the various permeability models, there are differences in the performance of the assays, along with variability in animal species, tissue sources, and cell types, resulting in a variety of experimental permeability values for the same drug among laboratories. This has led to a need for assay standardization within laboratories to ensure applicability in the drug development process. Method suitability provides a generalized approach to standardize and validate a permeability model within a laboratory. First, assay methodology is optimized and validated for its various experimental parameters along with acceptance criteria for the assay. Second, the suitability of the model is demonstrated by a rank order relationship between experimental permeability values and human extent of absorption of known model compounds. Lastly, standard compounds are employed to classify a test drug's intestinal permeability and ensure assay reproducibility and quality. This review will provide examples of the different aspects method suitability for in situ (intestinal perfusions), ex vivo (everted intestinal sacs, diffusion chambers), and in vitro (cell monolayers, artificial membranes) experimental permeability models. Through assay standardization, reference standards, and acceptance criteria, method suitability assures the dependability of experimental data to predict a drug's intestinal permeability during discovery, development, and regulatory application.

Application of method suitability for drug permeability classification.

The safe disposal of unused opioid drugs is an area of regulatory concern. While toilet flushing is recommended for some drugs to prevent accidental exposure, there is a need for data that can support a more consistent disposal policy based on an assessment of relative risk. For drugs acting at the Mu-opioid receptor (MOR), published measurements of binding affinity (K(i)) are incomplete and inconsistent due to differences in methodology and assay system, leading to a wide range of values for the same drug thus precluding a simple and meaningful relative ranking of drug potency. Experiments were conducted to obtain K(i)'s for 19 approved opioid drugs using a single binding assay in a cell membrane preparation expressing recombinant human MOR. The K(i) values obtained ranged from 0.1380 nM (sufentanil) to 12.486 μM (tramadol). The drugs were separated into three categories based upon their K(i) values: K(i) > 100 nM (tramadol, codeine, meperidine, propoxyphene and pentazocine), K(i)=1-100 nM (hydrocodone, oxycodone, diphenoxylate, alfentanil, methadone, nalbuphine, fentanyl and morphine) and K(i) < 1 nM (butorphanol, levorphanol, oxymorphone, hydromorphone, buprenorphine and sufentanil). These data add to the understanding of the pharmacology of opioid drugs and support the development of a more consistent labeling policies regarding safe disposal.

Uniform assessment and ranking of opioid μ receptor binding constants for selected opioid drugs.

The human colon adenocarcinoma Caco-2 and Madin-Darby canine kidney epithelial cell lines provide in vitro tools to assess a drug's permeability and transporter interactions during discovery and development. The cells, when cultured on semiporous filters, form confluent monolayers that model the intestinal epithelial barrier for permeability, transporter and drug-interaction assays. The applications of these assays in pharmaceutical research include qualitative prediction and ranking of absorption, determining mechanism(s) of permeability, formulation effects on drug permeability, and the potential for transporter-mediated drug-drug interactions. This review focuses on recent examples of Caco-2 and Madin-Darby canine kidney cells assays for drug permeability including transfected and knock-down cells, miniaturization and automation, and assay combinations to better understand and predict intestinal drug absorption.

Drug-permeability and transporter assays in Caco-2 and MDCK cell lines.

There is increasing evidence that renal impairment modifies nonrenal drug clearance through drug metabolizing cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes. In this study, the direct inhibitory effect of serum from chronic renal failure (CRF) patients receiving dialysis was evaluated in CYP3A4 (testosterone) and CYP2B6 (bupropion) metabolism assays. Human liver microsomes were incubated with ultrafiltered serum collected pre- and post-hemodialysis from ten CRF patients. Additionally, several uremic toxins were evaluated in the CYP3A4 assay. In only three patients was there a significant decrease or increase in testosterone or bupropion metabolism post-dialysis. Urea, mannitol, guanidine, homocysteine, uridine and creatinine had no effect on CYP3A4 metabolism. CMPF, hippuric acid and p-cresol had IC50 values that fell within CRF patient plasma concentrations. The IC50 values for indoxyl sulfate and indole-3-acetic acid were greater than CRF plasma concentrations. The lack of a consistent effect on CYP3A4 or CYP2B6 metabolism by uremic serum may be due in part to the frequency of hemodialysis in these patients which reduced the accumulation of uremic toxins. CMPF, hippuric acid and p-cresol have the ability to inhibit CYP3A4 metabolism at clinical concentrations which may correspond to reports of changes in hepatic metabolism in some CRF patients. 

Effect of uremic serum and uremic toxins on drug metabolism in human microsomes.

Drug interactions due to efflux transporters may result in one drug increasing or decreasing the systemic exposure of a second drug. The potential for in vivo drug interactions is estimated through in vitro cell assays. Variability in in vitro parameter determination (e.g., IC₅₀ values) among laboratories may lead to different conclusions in in vivo interaction predictions. The objective of this study was to investigate variability in in vitro inhibition potency determination that may be due to calculation methods. In a Caco-2 cell assay, the absorptive and secretive permeability of digoxin was measured in the presence of spironolactone, itraconazole and vardenafil. From the permeability data, the efflux ratio and net secretory flux where calculated for each inhibitor. IC₅₀ values were then calculated using a variety of equations and software programs. All three drugs decreased the secretory transport of digoxin in a concentration-dependent manner while increasing digoxin's absorption to a lesser extent. The resulting IC₅₀ values varied according to the parameter evaluated, whether percent inhibition or percent control was applied, and the computational IC₅₀ equation. This study has shown that multiple methods used to quantitate the inhibition of drug efflux in a cell assay can result in different IC₅₀ values. The variability in the results in this study points to a need to standardize any transporter assay and calculation methods within a laboratory and to validate the assay with a set of known inhibitors and non-inhibitors against a clinically relevant substrate.

Use of different parameters and equations for calculation of IC₅₀ values in efflux assays: potential sources of variability in IC₅₀ determination.

Hyperbilirubinemia has been observed in patients treated with tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) drugs. Therefore, it would be beneficial to understand whether there is a relationship between inhibition of uridine-5'-diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 1A1 activity and observed bilirubin elevations in TKI drug-treated patients. UGT1A1 is responsible for the glucuronidation of bilirubin which leads to its elimination in the bile.

In vitro UGT1A1 inhibition by tyrosine kinase inhibitors and association with drug-induced hyperbilirubinemia.

Methadone is utilized for the treatment of individuals with opiate dependence. Methadone undergoes N-demethylation by multiple cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes including CYP3A4, CYP2B6, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP2C9, and CYP2C8. In vivo, polymorphism effects on methadone systemic exposure have been noted for CYP2B6, CYP3A4, and CYP2D6. Clinical drug interaction studies with antiviral drugs in methadone maintenance treatment patients yield varying results on methadone pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. In general, CYP inhibitors altered methadone exposure with no adverse effects. CYP inducers generally decreased methadone exposure with some reports of withdrawal symptoms in the subjects. Interaction studies with antiviral drug combinations yielding differing results depend on the enzyme(s) affected. For certain antiviral medicines which are dual inhibitor(s) and inducer(s) for CYP enzymes, their effect on methadone pharmacokinetics can change with time since the effect of induction is usually delayed compared to the effect of inhibition.

Methadone Metabolism and Drug-Drug Interactions: In Vitro and In Vivo Literature Review.

It has recently become possible to produce hepatocytes from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC-heps), which may offer some advantages over primary human hepatocytes (Prim-heps) in the regulatory environment. The aim of this research was to assess similarities and differences between commercially available iPSC-heps and Prim-heps in preliminary assays of drug metabolism, hepatotoxicity, and drug transport. Hepatocytes were either cultured in collagen-coated 96-well plates (Prim-heps and 2d-iPSC-heps) or in ultra-low adhesion plates as spheroids (3d-iPSC-heps). 3d-iPSC-heps were used to enhance physiological cell-cell contacts, which is essential to maintain the phenotype of mature hepatocytes. Cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A4, CYP1A2, and CYP2B6 activity levels were evaluated using fluorescent assays. Phase II metabolism was assessed by HPLC measurement of formation of glucuronides and sulfates of 4-methylumbelliferone, 1-naphthol, and estradiol. The toxicity of acetaminophen, amiodarone, aspirin, clozapine, tacrine, tamoxifen, and troglitazone was monitored using a luminescent cell viability assay. Canaliculi formation was monitored by following the fluorescence of 5,6-carboxy-2',7'-dichlorofluorescein diacetate. All culture models showed similar levels of basal CYP3A4, CYP1A2 and CYP2B6 activity. However, while Prim-heps showed a vigorous response to CYP inducing agents, 2d-iPSC-heps showed no response and 3d-iPSC-heps displayed an inconclusive response. 2d-iPSC-heps showed reduced, yet appreciable, glucuronide and sulfate formation compared to Prim-heps. All culture models showed similar activity in tests of hepatotoxicity, with Prim-heps generally being more sensitive. All models formed canaliculi capable of transporting carboxy-2',7'-dichlorofluorescein. The iPSC-heps appear to be useful for toxicity and transport studies, but metabolic activity is not optimum, and metabolism studies would benefit from a more mature model.

Article	Year
Variability in Caco-2 and MDCK cell-based intestinal permeability assays. Journal of pharmaceutical sciences\| PubMed ID: 17542022	2008
Effect of ethanol on opioid drug permeability through caco-2 cell monolayers. The AAPS journal\| PubMed ID: 18592381	2008
Effect of altered temperature storage on the in vitro cellular uptake of liposome drug products. Journal of liposome research\| PubMed ID: 19848447	2010
Application of method suitability for drug permeability classification. The AAPS journal\| PubMed ID: 20811966	2010
Uniform assessment and ranking of opioid μ receptor binding constants for selected opioid drugs. Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology : RTP\| PubMed ID: 21215785	2011
Drug-permeability and transporter assays in Caco-2 and MDCK cell lines. Future medicinal chemistry\| PubMed ID: 22098353	2011
Effect of uremic serum and uremic toxins on drug metabolism in human microsomes. Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology : RTP\| PubMed ID: 24184159	2014
Use of different parameters and equations for calculation of IC₅₀ values in efflux assays: potential sources of variability in IC₅₀ determination. The AAPS journal\| PubMed ID: 24338112	2014
In vitro UGT1A1 inhibition by tyrosine kinase inhibitors and association with drug-induced hyperbilirubinemia. Cancer chemotherapy and pharmacology\| PubMed ID: 30105461	2018
Methadone Metabolism and Drug-Drug Interactions: In Vitro and In Vivo Literature Review. Journal of pharmaceutical sciences\| PubMed ID: 30205091	2018
Characterization of a commercially available line of iPSC hepatocytes as models of hepatocyte function and toxicity for regulatory purposes. Journal of pharmacological and toxicological methods\| PubMed ID: 34098110	2021

Donna A. Volpe

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