rna-fluorescence-situ-hybridization-fish-to-visualize-microbial

RNA Fluorescence <em>in situ</em> Hybridization (FISH) to Visualize Microbial Colonization and Infection in <em>Caenorhabditis elegans</em> Intestines

The intestines of wild Caenorhabditis nematodes are inhabited by a variety of microorganisms, including gut microbiome bacteria and pathogens, such as ...

University of California, San Diego

For decades the soil nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has been an important model system for biology, but little is known about its natural ecology. Recently, C. elegans has become the focus of studies of innate immunity and several pathogens have been shown to cause lethal intestinal infections in C. elegans. However none of these pathogens has been shown to invade nematode intestinal cells, and no pathogen has been isolated from wild-caught C. elegans. Here we describe an intracellular pathogen isolated from wild-caught C. elegans that we show is a new species of microsporidia. Microsporidia comprise a large class of eukaryotic intracellular parasites that are medically and agriculturally important, but poorly understood. We show that microsporidian infection of the C. elegans intestine proceeds through distinct stages and is transmitted horizontally. Disruption of a conserved cytoskeletal structure in the intestine called the terminal web correlates with the release of microsporidian spores from infected cells, and appears to be part of a novel mechanism by which intracellular pathogens exit from infected cells. Unlike in bacterial intestinal infections, the p38 MAPK and insulin/insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signaling pathways do not appear to play substantial roles in resistance to microsporidian infection in C. elegans. We found microsporidia in multiple wild-caught isolates of Caenorhabditis nematodes from diverse geographic locations. These results indicate that microsporidia are common parasites of C. elegans in the wild. In addition, the interaction between C. elegans and its natural microsporidian parasites provides a system in which to dissect intracellular intestinal infection in vivo and insight into the diversity of pathogenic mechanisms used by intracellular microbes.

Microsporidia are natural intracellular parasites of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.

New models of microsporidiosis: infections in Zebrafish, C. elegans, and honey bee.

Pathogen exit is a key stage in the spread and propagation of infectious disease, with the fecal-oral route being a common mode of disease transmission. However, it is poorly understood which molecular pathways provide the major modes for intracellular pathogen exit and fecal-oral transmission in vivo. Here, we use the transparent nematode Caenorhabditis elegans to investigate intestinal cell exit and fecal-oral transmission by the natural intracellular pathogen Nematocida parisii, which is a recently identified species of microsporidia. We show that N. parisii exits from polarized host intestinal cells by co-opting the host vesicle trafficking system and escaping into the lumen. Using a genetic screen, we identified components of the host endocytic recycling pathway that are required for N. parisii spore exit via exocytosis. In particular, we show that the small GTPase RAB-11 localizes to apical spores, is required for spore-containing compartments to fuse with the apical plasma membrane, and is required for spore exit. In addition, we find that RAB-11-deficient animals exhibit impaired contagiousness, supporting an in vivo role for this host trafficking factor in microsporidia disease transmission. Altogether, these findings provide an in vivo example of the major mode of exit used by a natural pathogen for disease spread via fecal-oral transmission. 

The small GTPase RAB-11 directs polarized exocytosis of the intracellular pathogen N. parisii for fecal-oral transmission from C. elegans.

Microsporidia comprise a phylum of obligate intracellular pathogens related to fungi. Microsporidia Nematocida sp1 strain ERTm6 was isolated from wild-caught Caenorhabditis briggsae and causes a lethal intestinal infection in Caenorhabditis nematodes. We report the genome sequence of N. sp1 ERTm6, which will facilitate study of the Nematocida genus and other Microsporidia. 

Genome Sequence of the Microsporidian Species Nematocida sp1 Strain ERTm6 (ATCC PRA-372).

Epithelial cells line the surfaces of the body, and are on the front lines of defense against microbial infection. Like many other metazoans, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans lacks known professional immune cells and relies heavily on defense mediated by epithelial cells. New results indicate that epithelial defense in C. elegans can be triggered through detection of pathogen-induced perturbation of core physiology within host cells and through autophagic defense against intracellular and extracellular pathogens. Recent studies have also illuminated a diverse array of pathogenic attack strategies used against C. elegans. These findings are providing insight into the underpinnings of host/pathogen interactions in a simple animal host that can inform studies of infectious diseases in humans. 

Microbial pathogenesis and host defense in the nematode C. elegans.

Microsporidia comprise one of the largest groups of obligate intracellular pathogens and can infect virtually all animals, but host response to these fungal-related microbes has been poorly understood. Several new studies of the host transcriptional response to microsporidia infection have found infection-induced regulation of genes involved in innate immunity, ubiquitylation, metabolism, and hormonal signaling. In addition, microsporidia have recently been shown to exploit host recycling endocytosis for exit from intestinal cells, and to interact with host degradation pathways. Microsporidia infection has also been shown to profoundly affect behavior in insect hosts. Altogether, these and other recent findings are providing much-needed insight into the underlying mechanisms of microsporidia interaction with host animals. 

Microsporidia-host interactions.

Microsporidia are highly divergent fungi that are obligate intracellular pathogens of a wide range of host organisms. Here we review recent findings from the genome sequences of mosquito-infecting microsporidian species Edhazardia aedis and Vavraia culicis, which show large differences in genome size, although similar numbers of predicted genes. We also show a video of E. aedis polar tube firing, which is the dramatic mechanism used by microsporidia to deliver the germ cell (sporoplasm) into the host cell to initiate intracellular infection. 

Genome analysis and polar tube firing dynamics of mosquito-infecting microsporidia.

Pathogens attack host cells by deploying toxins that perturb core host processes. Recent findings from the nematode C. elegans and other metazoans indicate that surveillance or "effector-triggered" pathways monitor functioning of these core processes and mount protective responses when they are perturbed. Despite a growing number of examples of surveillance immunity, the signaling components remain poorly defined. Here, we show that CEBP-2, the C. elegans ortholog of mammalian CCAAT-enhancer-binding protein gamma, is a key player in surveillance immunity. We show that CEBP-2 acts together with the bZIP transcription factor ZIP-2 in the protective response to translational block by P. aeruginosa Exotoxin A as well as perturbations of other processes. CEBP-2 serves to limit pathogen burden, promote survival upon P. aeruginosa infection, and also promote survival upon Exotoxin A exposure. These findings may have broad implications for the mechanisms by which animals sense pathogenic attack and mount protective responses. 

The C. elegans CCAAT-Enhancer-Binding Protein Gamma Is Required for Surveillance Immunity.

Microsporidia are ubiquitous parasites that infect a wide range of animal hosts, and these fungal-related microbes undergo their entire replicative lifecycle inside of host cells. Despite being widespread in the environment and causing medical and agricultural harm, virtually nothing is known about the host factors important to facilitate their growth and development inside of host cells. Here, we perform a genetic screen to identify host transcription factors important for development of the microsporidian pathogen Nematocida parisii inside intestinal cells of its natural host, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans Through this screen, we identified the C. elegans Myc family of transcription factors as key host regulators of microsporidia growth and development. The Mad-like transcription factor MDL-1, and the Max-like transcription factors MXL-1 and MXL-2 promote pathogen levels, while the Myc-Mondo-like transcription factor MML-1 inhibits pathogen levels. We used epistasis analysis to show that MDL-1 and MXL-1, which are thought to function as a heterodimer, appear to be acting canonically. In contrast, MXL-2 and MML-1, which are also thought to function as a heterodimer, appear to be acting in separate pathways (noncanonically) in the context of pathogen infection. We also found that both MDL-1::GFP and MML-1::GFP are expressed in intestinal cells during infection. These findings provide novel insight into the host transcription factors that regulate microsporidia development.

Microsporidia Intracellular Development Relies on Myc Interaction Network Transcription Factors in the Host.

Maintenance of protein homeostasis, or proteostasis, is crucial for organismal health. Disruption of proteostasis can lead to the accumulation of protein aggregates, which are associated with aging and many human diseases such as Alzheimer's disease [1-3]. Through analysis of the C. elegans host response to intracellular infection, we describe here a novel response pathway that enhances proteostasis capacity and appears to act in parallel to well-studied proteostasis pathways. These findings are based on analysis of the transcriptional response to infection by the intracellular pathogen Nematocida parisii [4]. The response to N. parisii is strikingly similar to the response to infection by the Orsay virus, another natural intracellular pathogen of C. elegans, and is distinct from responses to extracellular pathogen infection [4-6]. We have therefore named this common transcriptional response the intracellular pathogen response (IPR), and it includes upregulation of several predicted ubiquitin ligase complex components such as the cullin cul-6. Through a forward genetic screen we found pals-22, a gene of previously unknown function, to be a repressor of the cul-6/cullin gene and other IPR gene expression. Interestingly, pals-22 mutants have increased thermotolerance and reduced levels of stress-induced polyglutamine aggregates, likely due to upregulated IPR gene expression. We found the enhanced stress resistance of pals-22 mutants to be dependent on cul-6, suggesting that pals-22 mutants have increased activity of a CUL-6/cullin-containing ubiquitin ligase complex. pals-22 mutant phenotypes appear independent of the well-studied heat shock and insulin signaling pathways, indicating that the IPR is a distinct pathway that protects animals from proteotoxic stress.

An Intracellular Pathogen Response Pathway Promotes Proteostasis in C. elegans.

Emily Troemel is a Professor at the University of California San Diego, where her lab uses Caenorhabditis elegans to study host-pathogen interactions and the shaping of the immune response. In this interview, Emily shared her thoughts on peer review and its role in training future scientists, and the possibility of a new form of immunity in epithelia.

Host-parasite interactions: an interview with Emily Troemel.

Genetic reporters such as the green fluorescent protein (GFP) can facilitate measurement of promoter activity and gene expression. However, animal autofluorescence limits the sensitivity of GFP and other fluorescent reporters in whole-animal settings like in the nematode  Here, we present a highly sensitive Nanoluciferase (NanoLuc)-based method in a multiwell format to detect constitutive and inducible gene expression in   We optimize detection of bioluminescent signals from NanoLuc in  and show that it can be detected at 400,000-fold over background in a population of 100 animals expressing intestinal NanoLuc driven by the  promoter. We can reliably detect signal in single ::-expressing worms from all developmental stages. Furthermore, we can detect signal from a 1/100 dilution of lysate from a single ::-expressing adult and from a single ::-expressing adult "hidden" in a pool of 5000 N2 wild-type animals. We also optimize various steps of this protocol, which involves a lysis step that can be performed in minutes. As a proof-of-concept, we used NanoLuc to monitor the promoter activity of the  stress/immune reporter and were able to measure 300- and 50-fold increased NanoLuc activity after proteasome blockade and infection with microsporidia, respectively. Altogether, these results indicate that NanoLuc provides a highly sensitive genetic reporter for rapidly monitoring whole-animal gene expression in .

Nanoluciferase-Based Method for Detecting Gene Expression in .

Mammalian retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I)-like receptors detect viral double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) and 5'-triphosphorylated RNA to activate the transcription of interferon genes and promote antiviral defense. The  RIG-I-like receptor DRH-1 promotes defense through antiviral RNA interference (RNAi), but less is known about its role in regulating transcription. Here, we describe a role for DRH-1 in directing a transcriptional response in  called the intracellular pathogen response (IPR), which is associated with increased pathogen resistance. The IPR includes a set of genes induced by diverse stimuli, including intracellular infection and proteotoxic stress. Previous work suggested that the proteotoxic stress caused by intracellular infections might be the common trigger of the IPR, but here, we demonstrate that different stimuli act through distinct pathways. Specifically, we demonstrate that DRH-1/RIG-I is required for inducing the IPR in response to Orsay virus infection but not in response to other triggers like microsporidian infection or proteotoxic stress. Furthermore, DRH-1 appears to be acting independently of its known role in RNAi. Interestingly, expression of the replication-competent Orsay virus RNA1 segment alone is sufficient to induce most of the IPR genes in a manner dependent on RNA-dependent RNA polymerase activity and on DRH-1. Altogether, these results suggest that DRH-1 is a pattern recognition receptor that detects viral replication products to activate the IPR stress/immune program in    lacks homologs of most mammalian pattern recognition receptors, and how nematodes detect pathogens is poorly understood. We show that the  RIG-I homolog DRH-1 mediates the induction of the intracellular pathogen response (IPR), a novel transcriptional defense program, in response to infection by the natural  viral pathogen Orsay virus. DRH-1 appears to act as a pattern recognition receptor to induce the IPR transcriptional defense program by sensing the products of viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase activity. Interestingly, this signaling role of DRH-1 is separable from its previously known role in antiviral RNAi. In addition, we show that there are multiple host pathways for inducing the IPR, shedding light on the regulation of this novel transcriptional immune response.

The Caenorhabditis elegans RIG-I Homolog DRH-1 Mediates the Intracellular Pathogen Response upon Viral Infection.

Intracellular pathogen infection leads to proteotoxic stress in host organisms. Previously we described a physiological program in the nematode  called the intracellular pathogen response (IPR), which promotes resistance to proteotoxic stress and appears to be distinct from canonical proteostasis pathways. The IPR is controlled by PALS-22 and PALS-25, proteins of unknown biochemical function, which regulate expression of genes induced by natural intracellular pathogens. We previously showed that PALS-22 and PALS-25 regulate the mRNA expression of the predicted ubiquitin ligase component cullin , which promotes thermotolerance in  mutants. However, it was unclear whether CUL-6 acted alone, or together with other cullin-ring ubiquitin ligase components, which comprise a greatly expanded gene family in  Here we use coimmunoprecipitation studies paired with genetic analysis to define the cullin-RING ligase components that act together with CUL-6 to promote thermotolerance. First, we identify a previously uncharacterized RING domain protein in the TRIM family we named RCS-1, which acts as a core component with CUL-6 to promote thermotolerance. Next, we show that the Skp-related proteins SKR-3, SKR-4, and SKR-5 act redundantly to promote thermotolerance with CUL-6. Finally, we screened F-box proteins that coimmunoprecipitate with CUL-6 and find that FBXA-158 and FBXA-75 promote thermotolerance. In summary, we have defined the three core components and two F-box adaptors of a cullin-RING ligase complex that promotes thermotolerance as part of the IPR in , which adds to our understanding of how organisms cope with proteotoxic stress.

A cullin-RING ubiquitin ligase promotes thermotolerance as part of the intracellular pathogen response in .

Defense against intracellular infection has been extensively studied in vertebrate hosts, but less is known about invertebrate hosts; specifically, the transcription factors that induce defense against intracellular intestinal infection in the model nematode Caenorhabditis elegans remain understudied. Two different types of intracellular pathogens that naturally infect the C. elegans intestine are the Orsay virus, which is an RNA virus, and microsporidia, which comprise a phylum of fungal pathogens. Despite their molecular differences, these pathogens induce a common host transcriptional response called the intracellular pathogen response (IPR). Here we show that zip-1 is an IPR regulator that functions downstream of all known IPR-activating and regulatory pathways. zip-1 encodes a putative bZIP transcription factor, and we show that zip-1 controls induction of a subset of genes upon IPR activation. ZIP-1 protein is expressed in the nuclei of intestinal cells, and is at least partially required in the intestine to upregulate IPR gene expression. Importantly, zip-1 promotes resistance to infection by the Orsay virus and by microsporidia in intestinal cells. Altogether, our results indicate that zip-1 represents a central hub for triggers of the IPR, and that this transcription factor has a protective function against intracellular pathogen infection in C. elegans.

The transcription factor ZIP-1 promotes resistance to intracellular infection in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Microsporidia are poorly understood, ubiquitous eukaryotic parasites that are completely dependent on their hosts for replication. With the discovery of microsporidia species naturally infecting the genetically tractable transparent nematode C. elegans, this host has been used to explore multiple areas of microsporidia biology. Here we review results about microsporidia infections in C. elegans, which began with the discovery of the intestinal-infecting species Nematocida parisii. Recent findings include new species identification in the Nematocida genus, with more intestinal-infecting species, and also a species with broader tissue tropism, the epidermal and muscle-infecting species Nematocida displodere. This species has a longer polar tube infection apparatus, which may enable its wider tissue range. After invasion, multiple Nematocida species appear to fuse host cells, which likely promotes their dissemination within host organs. Localized proteomics identified Nematocida proteins that have direct contact with the C. elegans intestinal cytosol and nucleus, and many of these host-exposed proteins belong to expanded, species-specific gene families. On the host side, forward genetic screens have identified regulators of the Intracellular Pathogen Response (IPR), which is a transcriptional response induced by both microsporidia and the Orsay virus, which is also a natural, obligate intracellular pathogen of the C. elegans intestine. The IPR constitutes a novel immune/stress response that promotes resistance against microsporidia, virus, and heat shock. Overall, the Nematocida/C. elegans system has provided insights about strategies for microsporidia pathogenesis, as well as innate defense pathways against these parasites.

Article	Year
Microsporidia are natural intracellular parasites of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. PLoS biology\| PubMed ID: 19071962	2008
New models of microsporidiosis: infections in Zebrafish, C. elegans, and honey bee. PLoS pathogens\| PubMed ID: 21379567	2011
The small GTPase RAB-11 directs polarized exocytosis of the intracellular pathogen N. parisii for fecal-oral transmission from C. elegans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 24843160	2014
Genome Sequence of the Microsporidian Species Nematocida sp1 Strain ERTm6 (ATCC PRA-372). Genome announcements\| PubMed ID: 25237020	2014
Microbial pathogenesis and host defense in the nematode C. elegans. Current opinion in microbiology\| PubMed ID: 25461579	2015
Microsporidia-host interactions. Current opinion in microbiology\| PubMed ID: 25847674	2015
Genome analysis and polar tube firing dynamics of mosquito-infecting microsporidia. Fungal genetics and biology : FG & B\| PubMed ID: 26300319	2015
The C. elegans CCAAT-Enhancer-Binding Protein Gamma Is Required for Surveillance Immunity. Cell reports\| PubMed ID: 26876169	2016
Microsporidia Intracellular Development Relies on Myc Interaction Network Transcription Factors in the Host. G3 (Bethesda, Md.)\| PubMed ID: 27402359	2016
An Intracellular Pathogen Response Pathway Promotes Proteostasis in C. elegans. Current biology : CB\| PubMed ID: 29103937	2017
Host-parasite interactions: an interview with Emily Troemel. BMC biology\| PubMed ID: 30382839	2018
Nanoluciferase-Based Method for Detecting Gene Expression in . Genetics\| PubMed ID: 31585955	2019
The Caenorhabditis elegans RIG-I Homolog DRH-1 Mediates the Intracellular Pathogen Response upon Viral Infection. Journal of virology\| PubMed ID: 31619561	2020
A cullin-RING ubiquitin ligase promotes thermotolerance as part of the intracellular pathogen response in . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 32193347	2020
The transcription factor ZIP-1 promotes resistance to intracellular infection in Caenorhabditis elegans. Nature communications\| PubMed ID: 35013162	2022
Insights from C. elegans into Microsporidia Biology and Host-Pathogen Relationships. Experientia supplementum (2012)\| PubMed ID: 35544001	2022

Emily R. Troemel

Biography

JoVE Journal Publications

Other Publications