deciphering-molecular-mechanism-function-pore-forming-toxins-using

Deciphering the Molecular Mechanism and Function of Pore-Forming Toxins Using <em>Leishmania major</em>

Understanding the function and mechanism of pore-forming toxins (PFTs) is challenging because cells resist the membrane damage caused by PFTs. While ...

Texas Tech University

Ethanolamine glycerophospholipids are ubiquitous cell membrane components. Trypanosomatid parasites of the genus Leishmania synthesize the majority of their ethanolamine glycerophospholipids as 1-O-alk-1'-enyl-2-acyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine or plasmenylethanolamine (PME) through the Kennedy pathway. PME is a subtype of ether phospholipids also known as ethanolamine plasmalogen whose functions are not well characterized. In this study, we investigated the role of PME synthesis in Leishmania major through the characterization of an ethanolamine phosphotransferase (EPT) mutant. EPT-null parasites are largely devoid of PME and fully viable in regular medium but fail to proliferate in the absence of fetal bovine serum. They exhibit significant abnormalities in the synthesis and localization of GPI-anchored surface molecules. EPT-null mutants also show attenuated virulence in BALB/c mice. Furthermore, in addition to PME synthesis, ethanolamine also contributes to the production of phosphatidylcholine, the most abundant class of lipids in Leishmania. Together, these findings suggest that ethanolamine production is likely required for Leishmania promastigotes to generate bulk phospholipids, to handle stress, and to control the expression of membrane bound virulence factors.

Plasmenylethanolamine synthesis in Leishmania major.

Phosphatidylcholine (PC) is a major cell membrane constituent and precursor of important second messengers. In Leishmania parasites, PC synthesis can occur via the choline branch of the Kennedy pathway, the N-methylation of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), or the remodeling of exogenous phospholipids. To investigate the role of de novo PC synthesis in Leishmania major, we focused on the cholinephosphate cytidylyltransferase (CPCT) which catalyzes the formation of CDP-choline, a key intermediate in the choline branch of the Kennedy pathway. Without CPCT, L. major parasites cannot incorporate choline into PC, yet the CPCT-null mutants contain similar levels of PC and PE as wild type parasites. Loss of CPCT does not affect the growth of parasites in complete medium or their virulence in mice. These results suggest that other mechanisms of PC synthesis can compensate the loss of CPCT. Importantly, CPCT-null parasites exhibited severe growth defects when ethanolamine and exogenous lipids became limited or when they were co-cultured with certain bacteria that are known to be members of sandfly midgut microbiota. These findings suggest that Leishmania employ multiple PC synthesis pathways to utilize a diverse pool of nutrients, which may be crucial for their survival and development in the sandfly.

Phosphatidylcholine synthesis through cholinephosphate cytidylyltransferase is dispensable in Leishmania major.

Sterol 14-α-demethylase (C14DM) is a key enzyme in the biosynthesis of sterols and the primary target of azoles. In Leishmania major, genetic or chemical inactivation of C14DM leads to accumulation of 14-methylated sterol intermediates and profound plasma membrane abnormalities including increased fluidity and failure to maintain ordered membrane microdomains. These defects likely contribute to the hypersensitivity to heat and severely reduced virulence displayed by the C14DM-null mutants (c14dm‾). In addition to plasma membrane, sterols are present in intracellular organelles. In this study, we investigated the impact of C14DM ablation on mitochondria. Our results demonstrate that c14dm‾ mutants have significantly higher mitochondrial membrane potential than wild type parasites. Such high potential leads to the buildup of reactive oxygen species in the mitochondria, especially under nutrient-limiting conditions. Consistent with these mitochondrial alterations, c14dm‾ mutants show impairment in respiration and are heavily dependent on glucose uptake and glycolysis to generate energy. Consequently, these mutants are extremely sensitive to glucose deprivation and such vulnerability can be rescued through the supplementation of glucose or glycerol. In addition, the accumulation of oxidants may also contribute to the heat sensitivity exhibited by c14dm‾. Finally, genetic or chemical ablation of C14DM causes increased susceptibility to pentamidine, an antimicrobial agent with activity against trypanosomatids. In summary, our investigation reveals that alteration of sterol synthesis can negatively affect multiple cellular processes in Leishmania parasites and make them vulnerable to clinically relevant stress conditions.

Sterol 14-α-demethylase is vital for mitochondrial functions and stress tolerance in Leishmania major.

Phosphatidylcholine (PC) is the most abundant type of phospholipids in eukaryotes constituting ~30% of total lipids in . PC synthesis mainly occurs  the choline branch of the Kennedy pathway (choline ⇒ choline-phosphate ⇒ CDP-choline ⇒ PC) and the N-methylation of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE). In addition,  parasites can acquire PC and other lipids from the host or culture medium. In this study, we assessed the function and essentiality of choline ethanolamine phosphotransferase (CEPT) in  which is responsible for the final step of the  synthesis of PC and PE. Our data indicate that CEPT is localized in the endoplasmic reticulum and possesses the activity to generate PC from CDP-choline and diacylglycerol. Targeted deletion of  is only possible in the presence of an episomal  gene in the promastigote stage of . These chromosomal null parasites require the episomal expression of  to survive in culture, confirming its essentiality during the promastigote stage. In contrast, during  infection of BALB/c mice, these chromosomal null parasites appeared to lose the episomal copy of  while maintaining normal levels of virulence, replication and cellular PC. Therefore, while the  synthesis of PC/PE is indispensable for the proliferation of promastigotes, intracellular amastigotes appear to acquire most of their lipids through salvage and remodeling.

 Synthesis of Phosphatidylcholine Is Essential for the Promastigote But Not Amastigote Stage in .

 parasites are trypanosomatid protozoans that cause leishmaniasis affecting millions of people worldwide. Sterols are important components of the plasma and organellar membranes. They also serve as precursors for the synthesis of signaling molecules. Unlike animals,  does not synthesize cholesterol but makes ergostane-based sterols instead. C-14-demethylase is a key enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of sterols and an important drug target. In  parasites, the inactivation of C-14-demethylase leads to multiple defects, including increased plasma membrane fluidity, mitochondrion dysfunction, hypersensitivity to stress and reduced virulence. In this study, we revealed a novel role for sterol synthesis in the maintenance of RNA stability and translation. Sterol alteration in C-14-demethylase knockout mutant leads to increased RNA degradation, reduced translation and impaired heat shock response. Thus, sterol biosynthesis in  plays an unexpected role in global gene regulation.

Unexpected Role of Sterol Synthesis in RNA Stability and Translation in .

Sphingosine-1-phosphate phosphatase (SPP) catalyzes the dephosphorylation of sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) into sphingosine, the reverse reaction of sphingosine kinase. In mammals, S1P acts as a potent bioactive molecule regulating cell proliferation, migration, and immunity. In Leishmania, S1P production is crucial for the synthesis of ethanolamine and choline phospholipids, and cell survival under stress conditions. To better understand the roles of S1P, we characterized a SPP ortholog in Leishmania major which displays activity towards S1P but not structurally related lipids such as ceramide-1-phosphate or lysophosphatidic acid. While this enzyme is found in the endoplasmic reticulum in mammalian cells, L. major SPP is localized at the Golgi apparatus. Importantly, chromosomal SPP alleles cannot be deleted from L. major even with the addition of a complementing episome, suggesting that endogenously expressed SPP is essential. Finally, SPP overexpression in L. major leads to a slower growth rate and heightened sensitivity to brefeldin A and sodium orthovanadate. Together, these results suggest that the equilibrium between S1P and sphingosine is vital for the function of Golgi apparatus in Leishmania.

Article	Year
Plasmenylethanolamine synthesis in Leishmania major. Molecular microbiology\| PubMed ID: 27062077	2016
Phosphatidylcholine synthesis through cholinephosphate cytidylyltransferase is dispensable in Leishmania major. Scientific reports\| PubMed ID: 31110206	2019
Sterol 14-α-demethylase is vital for mitochondrial functions and stress tolerance in Leishmania major. PLoS pathogens\| PubMed ID: 32817704	2020
Synthesis of Phosphatidylcholine Is Essential for the Promastigote But Not Amastigote Stage in . Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology\| PubMed ID: 33777852	2021
Unexpected Role of Sterol Synthesis in RNA Stability and Translation in . Biomedicines\| PubMed ID: 34205466	2021
The Golgi-localized sphingosine-1-phosphate phosphatase is indispensable for Leishmania major. Scientific reports\| PubMed ID: 36163400	2022

Samrat Moitra

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