Name: testing in-group bias with minimal groups
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T06:52:40.000Z
Duration: 9 min 15 s
Channel: JoVE

1. 受试者招募
<ol>
	<li>进行功效分析，并招募足够数量的参与者。</li>
</ol>
2. 准备材料。
<ol>
	<li>生成四十张包含不同数量点簇的图像（其中一个示例如图1所示）。</li>
</ol>
<img alt="静态平衡，随机粒子分布，示意图，说明空间排列概念。" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/10310/10310fig1.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1761830439000" data-alt="图1"> 
图1： 点数估计任务示例。 上图显示了23个点。参与者仅能观看每张图像125-500毫秒，随后需估计屏幕上出现的点数。
<ol start="2">
	<li>生成有序矩阵，每个矩阵应包含14个方框，每个方框内有两个数字。
	<ol>
		<li>为每一行标注：“这些是[插入代码编号]号成员在你所在组中的奖励与惩罚”，或“在其他组中的奖励与惩罚”。</li>
		<li>创建六个矩阵，每个矩阵需满足以下三种标准之一（每种标准两个矩阵；图2）。
		<ol>
			<li>A型：最大惩罚值超过最大奖励值。将方框排序，使联合收益最大值和公平性最大值两项位于中间位置。</li>
			<li>B型：无惩罚且联合收益恒定。将方框排序，使两个公平性最大值位于中间位置。</li>
			<li>C型：最大奖励值超过最大惩罚值。将方框排序，使联合收益最大值位于两端，两个公平性最大值位于中间位置。</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>为以下三种不同类型的决策，复制上述六个矩阵，每种类型对应不同的行标签：
		<ol>
			<li>内群体选择：顶行表示一名内群体成员的奖励与惩罚结果，底行表示另一名内群体成员的结果。</li>
			<li>外群体选择：顶行表示一名外群体成员的奖励与惩罚结果，底行表示另一名外群体成员的结果。</li>
			<li>差异性（群体间）选择：其中一行表示一名内群体成员的奖励与惩罚结果，另一行表示一名外群体成员的结果。随机排列这两行的顺序，使得三个矩阵的顶行为内群体成员，另外三个矩阵的顶行为外群体成员。</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Matrix analysis; numerical data in table format; includes matrices 1 to 6 for linear transformations." class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/10310/10310fig2.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1761830439000" data-alt="Figure 2"> 
图2: 本实验中常用的收益矩阵。 每个矩阵包含两行，反映影响内群体或其他外群体成员的金钱权衡。矩阵类型（A、B 和 C）在左侧标明，每种类型包含两个矩阵。全部六个矩阵均重复三次，分别对应三种决策类型（内群体、外群体和差异性决策）。例如，在矩阵1中的一个差异性选择可能显示：“这是你所在群体第3位成员的奖励与惩罚”（上行）以及“另一群体第2位成员”（下行），并附有14个权衡项。因此，第14项（即，最不公平的选项）将从外群体成员扣除19分，同时给予同群体成员6分。而术语7和8则反映了最公平的选项，因为它们使两名参与者的联合惩罚最小化（-1）。
<ol start="3">
	<li>将18个矩阵的顺序随机化。</li>
	<li>在每个部分的正面标注标题：“For member of the [插入组别标识]”，其中组别标识对应以下四个实验条件之一：(1) 低估组，(2) 高估组，(3) 准确性较优组，和 (4) 准确性较差组。</li>
</ol>
3. 数据采集
<ol>
	<li>让每位参与者坐在一台计算机前。</li>
	<li>将40组点阵图像中的每一张都非常短暂地呈现，呈现时间在125-500毫秒之间。</li>
	<li>在图像之间留出一定时间，以便参与者能够估计所看到的点数，并在计算机上记录他们的回答。</li>
	<li>为了评估分类对群体间行为的影响，告知参与者您希望研究其他类型的判断，并出于方便起见，将他们分为两个小组来进行这些判断。
	<ol>
		<li>将一半参与者随机分配到中性条件组或价值条件组。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>告知中性条件组的参与者，其中一个组将由对点数估计值最高的参与者组成，另一个组则由估计值最低的参与者组成。
	<ol>
		<li>将这些参与者中的一半随机分配为“低估者”，另一半分配为“高估者”。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>告知价值条件组的参与者，其中一个组将由对点数估计更准确的参与者组成，另一个组则由估计较不准确的参与者组成。
	<ol>
		<li>将这些参与者中的一半随机分配到“较高准确性”组，另一半分配到“较低准确性”组。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>引导参与者进入独立的隔间，并告知他们即将做出真实的金钱决策，可以（匿名地）奖励或惩罚其他参与者。</li>
	<li>让参与者根据其对应的组别完成矩阵任务。指导他们通过在每个矩阵中选择一个方框来表明自己的选择（图3）。</li>
</ol>
<img alt="奖励-惩罚表格，群体动力学实验，比较数据分析。" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/10310/10310fig3.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1761830439000" data-alt="图3"> 
图3： 从参与者视角看到的矩阵手册示例页面。 每页矩阵手册上显示18个矩阵中的6个。在上述示例中，每种类型（A、B和C）的矩阵各有两个，每种选择（组内、组外和差异性选择）也各有两个矩阵。例如，矩阵3为C型，并属于差异性选择，因为（1）最大奖励超过最大惩罚，且（2）参与者必须在影响同组成员（上行）或异组成员（下行）的结果之间做出抉择。
<ol start="9">
	<li>向参与者进行全面的说明。</li>
</ol>
4. 数据分析
<ol>
	<li>对矩阵进行1到14的评分，其中14表示该矩阵中使内群体成员获得最高可能得分的选择，1表示使内群体获得最低可能得分的选择；得分为7.5表示最大程度的公平性。</li>
	<li>进行单样本t检验，以确定各组内个体平均得分是否显著偏离公平点。</li>
</ol>

在一种由相对无关的分类区分内群体和外群体的情境下，参与者在分配真实奖励和惩罚时更倾向于自己的群体。该结果支持以下理论：社会分类无论依据何种组织原则，均能引发有意的歧视性行为。
人们会刻意选择使自己的内群体成为&#34;赢家&#34;的决策，即使这会牺牲整体集体利益的最大化。这些开创性发现最终促成了社会认同理论2和社会分类理论3的发展，这两者至今仍是理解群体间关系的重要模型。这些理论指出，个体可以同时拥有多种社会身份，并可根据具体情境有选择性地激活其中某一身份。因此，一些研究者发现了行为和神经层面的证据，表明即使是最小群体诱导也能够覆盖种族分类的影响4。自原始研究以来，由于最小群体诱导具有（1）操作简便、（2）对认知与行为具有强大影响、以及（3）与该学科核心构念高度相关等优势，已被广泛应用于数百项社会心理学实验中...

创建最小群体范式

来源：Julian Wills &amp;#38; Jay Van Bavel—纽约大学
对群际关系（如偏见、冲突和歧视）的研究一直是社会心理学的核心课题。歧视源于与其他群体的竞争、历史上的冲突，还是贬损性的刻板印象？尽管现实世界中有大量实例，但导致群际歧视的因素往往并不明确。
为了解决这一问题，一群心理学家创建了“最小群体”，以排除通常存在于群体间歧视中的混杂因素，例如经济上的自我利益以及冲突历史。在最小群体中，参与者被随机分配到完全新颖的群体中。因此，由此种最小群体诱导所产生的任何后果 必须 源于对社会群体的认同，并将社会世界划分为“我们”和“他们”。采用最小群体范式的研究表明，尽管群体成员身份具有任意性，参与者仍会主动表现出歧视行为，更偏爱内群体成员而非外群体成员。
最小群体范式在社会心理学中被广泛用于研究群体间关系的最基本要素。该方法最早由亨利·塔菲尔（Henri Tajfel）及其同事在1971年发表的一篇题为《社会分类与群体间行为》（Social Categorization and Intergroup Behaviour）的论文中提出。1 在三项实验中，作者记录了由极为简单的群体划分所引发的内群体偏好现象。本视频将演示如何以类似于第一项实验的方式实施最小群体划分，即表面上根据个体对点数估计的倾向来划分群体。

该操作通常会产生显著更高的收益（即，对内群体成员给予更多奖励和更少惩罚，而对外群体成员则相反。这种内群体偏爱现象的出现不受实验条件的影响；即使群体标签本身并不传递任何客观价值时，该现象依然存在即，“低估者”和“高估者”），这种区分足以支持辨别性行为（ 图4此外，这些差异不能归因于做出不公平决策的普遍倾向，因为参与者在决策对象均为内群体成员或均为外群体成员时，通常会选择最公平的选项。
<img alt="内群体偏爱图；中性与价值条件对比；选择类型比较；柱状图。" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/10310/10310fig4.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1761830439000" data-alt="图4"> 
图4：最小群体范式下的典型结果。 横轴显示选择类...

来源：Julian Wills ＆ Jay Van Bavel—纽约大学  
对群际关系（如偏见、冲突和歧视）的研究已……

尽管不同社会内部及社会之间的群体关系已得到长期研究，但导致个体群体间偏见与歧视的因素仍不明确。为了理解导致群体间偏见的影响因素，可以通过将个体随机分配到新的群体（心理学家称之为最小群体）来消除金钱利己动机和冲突历史等混杂因素。因此，这种任意重新分配所产生的任何后果，必然源于对新群体的认同。有趣的是，此类分类会引发对同属群体成员的强烈偏爱，从而将社会世界划分为“我们”与“他们”。 基于 Tajfel 及其同事以往的研究，本视频展示了如何构建最小群体，以检验社会分类如何影响决策过程中的认知偏差。在本实验中，参与者将经历两个阶段——群体分类和决策——以检验歧视性行为是否可能被随意产生。在第一部分（分组分类）中，要求参与者完成一项估计任务，即在多次试验中简单地猜测屏幕上显示的点数。 根据其表现水平将他们分为两组：中性组和价值组。中性条件下的参与者进一步被划分为“低估者”和“高估者”，并被告知他们的估计值分别为最低和最高。而对于价值条件下的参与者，则被告知他们的估计值比平均水平更准确或准确性较低。随后，在第二阶段，参与者会面对多个矩阵，需做出决策，以决定是否对其他参与者给予金钱奖励或施加金钱惩罚。为此，每个矩阵均由编号的选项组成，排列为两行十四列，每一行均标注为支持该参与者的群体成员——即内群体——或支持其他群体，即外群体。结合这些可能性可形成三种选择类型：组内和组间选择——两行均属于同一组；以及差异性选择——每组各选一行，从而构成组间决策。此外，为了在组内和组间调节权衡程度，这些矩阵被设计为满足以下三个标准之一：A，最大惩罚超过最大奖励；B，没有惩罚且收益几乎相等；或 C，最大奖励超过最大惩罚。在每种矩阵类型中，术语根据公平性进行排列。也就是说，两端的位置代表惩罚和奖励的两个极端，而中间列代表最大程度的公平性，因为此时的收益分配最为均等。因此，因变量为被选择术语的位置。为了对所有选择类型进行平均，各位置的得分范围为1到14，其中14表示在该矩阵中使内群体成员获得最高可能得分的选择，而1表示使内群体成员获得最低可能得分的选择。因此，7.5（即第7列和第8列的平均值）代表在所有选择类型中最为公平的决策。无论何种条件，预计都会出现内群体偏爱现象，从而在社会分类之后支持有意的歧视性行为。实验前，应进行功效分析，以招募足够数量的受试者。首先，向每位参与者问好，并引导他们进入实验室。待其就座后，递给他们一台笔记本电脑。开始第一项任务——呈现点阵簇。请注意，刺激间间隔（ISI）在125至500毫秒之间变化，以确保每位参与者有足够时间估计其所观察到的点的数量。同时请注意，他们的反应将被保存。在完成点数估计后，告知所有参与者，您希望研究其他类型的判断任务，并为方便起见，将他们分配到两个组中的其中一个。在不告知实际结果的情况下，将中性条件组随机分为估计偏低和偏高的组，将价值条件组分为估计更准确和较不准确的组。现在，将参与者分别带入独立的隔间，并告知他们即将做出真实的金钱决策，可以奖励或惩罚其他参与者。让他们根据各自的群体身份完成矩阵。指导他们通过在每个矩阵中选择一个方框来标明自己的选择。最后，在所有选择完成并提交后，向参与者进行全面的说明。 为分析反应结果，需对每个矩阵进行独立评分，评分范围为1至14分，其中1分表示对该矩阵中内群体成员给予最低可能得分，14分表示给予最高可能得分。为了可视化数据，绘制每种条件下不同选择类型的平均得分。使用单样本 t 检验来确定每组中个体的平均得分是否与公平点 7.5 有显著差异。请注意，无论处于何种条件，当决策涉及本组成员（组内选择）或完全不属于其组的成员（组外决策）时，参与者均表现出了相对公平的反应。然而，在涉及群体之间的决策——即差异性选择——其平均值显著高于7.5。这些结果表明，内群体偏好——一种歧视性行为——可能在任意分类之后出现。此外，这些差异不能归因于做出不公平决策的普遍倾向，因为参与者在决策涉及两名内群体成员或两名外群体成员时，通常会选择最公平的选项。现在，您已经了解了个体如何刻意做出有利于自己所属群体而损害其他群体的决策。接下来，让我们探讨研究人员如何利用最小群体诱导法来研究共情等社会互动行为，并探究群体间偏见背后的神经相关机制。研究人员使用相同的初始估计任务对参与者进行虚拟分组，然后要求他们观察人们处于疼痛或非疼痛情境中的图片。随后，要求他们想象自己或两个最小群体的成员（内群体 vs. 外群体）处于相同情境中，并相应地评估所感知疼痛的程度。当某人处于相同的社交群体中时，个体对其痛苦会表现出更强的同理心，这表明在同理心情境中也存在内群体偏差。在范贝维尔（Van Bavel）及其同事的另一项研究中，白人参与者被随机分配到不同种族的小组中，随后通过功能性磁共振成像（fMRI）扫描，以识别处理来自内群体和外群体成员面孔时所涉及的神经基础。在第一部分，要求他们对每张面孔从厌恶到喜欢进行评分。无论种族如何，个体对自己所属群体的评分均高于对外群体的评分。此外，眶额皮层的活动介导了此类偏差。这些结果表明，即使是最小群体诱导也能压倒种族分类。您刚刚观看了JoVE关于创建最小群体范式的视频。现在，您应该已经很好地掌握了如何设计和实施诱导歧视的实验，以及如何分析数据并得出有关群体间行为的结论。感谢观看！

Education

教育

JoVE Science Education

Psychology

心理学

Social Psychology

社会心理学

Creating the Minimal Group Paradigm

创建最小的组范式

testing in-group bias with minimal groups

Minimal groups are a way to test in-group bias in social psychology. Participants are randomly assigned to brand-new groups. This setup helps researchers study prejudice, conflict, and discrimination while removing factors like money and past history.

Because the groups are novel, any effect comes from social identity itself. The method separates the social world into “us” and “them.” Research with minimal groups has shown that people can favor their in-group over an out-group even when group membership is arbitrary.

This approach is widely used to study the basic parts of intergroup relations. It was first introduced in the 1971 paper Social Categorization and Intergroup Behaviour by Henri Tajfel and colleagues. The video demonstrates a minimal group induction similar to the first experiment in that study, where groups were said to be based on dot estimation tendencies.

Testing In-Group Bias With Minimal Groups

testing-in-group-bias-with-minimal-groups

analyzing situations in helping behavior

Situational Forces in Helping Decisions

Helping behavior is shaped by social situations as well as by personality. Social psychologists and personality psychologists both try to predict human behavior, but they focus on different causes. Personality psychology looks at traits, character, and individual differences. Social psychology looks at the power of the situation.

using fmri to dissect moral judgment

fMRI and the Trolley Dilemma in Moral Choice

fMRI can be used to study how people make moral choices in the trolley dilemma and the footbridge dilemma. These two classic thought experiments help researchers compare the roles of reason and emotion in moral judgment. In the trolley dilemma, most people say it is appropriate to pull a switch to stop a train from hitting five people, even though the switch sends the train toward one person. In the footbridge dilemma, most people say it is inappropriate to push a large man off a bridge so his...

perspectives on social psychology

Social Psychology Experiments and Human Behavior

Social psychology examines how social situations shape people’s actions, thoughts, and attitudes. It uses the scientific method to study everyday interactions between people who may be near each other, far apart, or even online. This makes the field especially useful for understanding behavior in modern life. Some social psychology studies focus on ostracism, or social exclusion. The ostracism video shows a way to make people feel left out without any direct face-to-face contact. These kinds...

evaluating the accuracy of snap judgments

evaluating-the-accuracy-of-snap-judgments

How Fast Social Impressions Can Be Accurate

Social impressions can form quickly and still be accurate. Social psychologists study how people judge others, including how students evaluate their teachers from limited information. This topic also looks at why quick judgments can be useful in everyday life. Much research on person perception has focused on judgment errors. These errors include giving too much weight to central traits such as “warm” and “cold,” ignoring the situation in which behavior happens, and making judgments that fit...

a minority of one: conformity to group norms

a-minority-of-one-conformity-to-group-norms

Testing How Group Norms Shape Perception

Conformity is the tendency to match attitudes, behaviors, or beliefs to group norms. Psychologists in the early to mid 1900s studied how strong social influence can be on thought and behavior. This work was influenced in part by efforts to explain the behavior of Nazi soldiers in World War II. At the time, behaviorist psychology explained conformity as a kind of reinforcement learning. In that view, it can feel rewarding to follow the group. Gestalt psychologists argued for a different idea.

misattribution of arousal and cognitive dissonance

misattribution-of-arousal-and-cognitive-dissonance

Arousal Can Shape Emotions and Decisions

Psychological arousal can shape how people interpret their feelings, emotions, and choices. When arousal feels vague and has no clear cause, people may explain it using the situation around them. Research by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer helped show that this kind of misreading can change behavior. One classic study used a drug cover story to test this idea. Participants were told they were getting a vision drug called Suproxin, but they actually received epinephrine, which increases...

marginal dishonesty: the adding-to-10 task

marginal-dishonesty-the-adding-to-10-task

Self-Concept and Cheating in the Adding-to-10 Task

The Adding-to-10 Task is a social psychology method for studying cheating and self-concept maintenance. It examines how people may balance the wish to gain something with the need to see themselves as honest. The task is often used to explore marginal dishonesty, also called the “fudge factor.” Classical economic theory says people are rational and self-interested. The transcript explains that people also follow other goals. Financial motives can be outweighed by the need to keep a positive...

ostracism: effects of being ignored over the internet

ostracism-effects-of-being-ignored-over-the-internet

How Social Ostracism Affects Belonging

Social ostracism is being ignored and excluded in the presence of other people. It is a strong social experience that appears in both animals and humans. It also shows up across development, relationships, cultures, social groups, and institutions. Some researchers suggest that ostracism can help regulate social groups. In this view, removing unwanted members may support group cohesion and fitness. The feeling of being left out can also act as a warning to change behavior and try to rejoin the...

inducing emotions

Disgust, Sadness, and Money Choices

Disgust and sadness can change how people value money and objects. Psychologists and economists have found that emotions can shape behavior, including consumer choices, and these feelings do not always come from the transaction itself. Incidental emotions are emotions that are unrelated to the decision at hand, yet they can still affect buyers and sellers. Earlier research often focused on broad mood differences, such as positive versus negative feelings. More recent work looks at specific...

persuasion: motivational factors influencing attitude change

persuasion-motivational-factors-influencing-attitude-change

Persuasion and Message Processing Routes

Persuasion depends on how people process a message and on what part of the message they pay attention to. Social psychological research has long examined how people change their attitudes toward an idea, person, or object. This question matters in politics, marketing, and public health. Early work showed that two key factors can shape persuasion: the source of the message and the content of the message. An expert source and a message with strong arguments are often more persuasive. But later...

creating the minimal group paradigm

Minimal groups are a way to test in-group bias in social psychology. Participants are randomly assigned to brand-new groups. This setup helps researchers study prejudice, conflict, and discrimination while removing factors like money and past history. Because the groups are novel, any effect comes from social identity itself. The method separates the social world into “us” and “them.” Research with minimal groups has shown that people can favor their in-group over an out-group even when group...

the implicit association test

Measuring Implicit Attitudes with the IAT

The Implicit Association Test, or IAT, measures implicit attitudes. These are attitudes that people may not report openly, even when they hold them. In social psychology, attitudes are often measured by asking people to self-report their beliefs, opinions, or feelings. That approach has limits when the topic is socially sensitive, such as racial prejudice. People may feel pressure to give unprejudiced, egalitarian answers, even if they have negative associations. The IAT was developed to get...

nonconscious mimicry occurs when affiliation goals are present

nonconscious-mimicry-occurs-when-affiliation-goals-are-present

Affiliation Goals Shape Social Mimicry

Nonconscious mimicry is a common part of social behavior. It happens when a person unwittingly copies another person's actions, such as crossing their legs after someone nearby does it or matching a conversation partner's posture. This kind of social chameleon behavior can happen without intention or awareness. Mimicry is linked to rapport, which is the sense of connection or ease between two people. When rapport increases, behavioral mimicry often increases too. Psychologists have also...

effects of thinking abstractly or concretely on self-control

effects-of-thinking-abstractly-or-concretely-on-self-control

Abstract vs Concrete Thinking and Self-Control

Abstract and concrete thinking can shape self-control and delay of gratification. Self-control often means choosing a long-term reward instead of a short-term one, such as skipping a second serving of ice cream, studying instead of going to a party, or saving money instead of spending it right away. Psychologists have studied self-regulation for decades. A person's mindset and focus can influence how they judge a choice and decide what to do. One theory that explains this is Construal Level...

thinking too much impairs decision-making

thinking-too-much-impairs-decision-making

Overthinking Can Skew Tough Choices

Overthinking can skew tough choices when people try to compare attractive options by listing pros and cons. This approach aims to turn a subjective choice into a clear set of criteria. Psychology research suggests that this kind of deep self-reflection does not always lead to the best outcome. The transcript also shows similar effects in other areas. People who ruminated, or kept thinking about a bad mood, improved less than people who were simply distracted. In another study, describing the...

social psychology

这本文集的特点是用来调查社会背景如何影响人们的行为, 思想和态度, 并提供了一个透明的社会实验的观察方法。

Explore how minimal groups are used in social psychology to study in-group bias, prejudice, and discrimination with random group assignment and dot estimates.

Testing In-Group Bias With Minimal Groups

Description

Transcript

Tags