Name: scientific method steps and controls
Uploaded: 2019-01-29T11:04:44.000Z
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Scientific Method

科学方法是科学家用来研究现象的技术和问题的框架，目的是使科学发现变得简单和可重复。早在公元前 4 世纪，实验人员就已经粗略地观察到了它，但第一个正式正式化的科学方法是在欧洲文艺复兴时期创造的。在这里，弗朗西斯·培根、伽利略和艾萨克·牛顿等处于科学前沿的人开始将我们今天用于进行实验的规则付诸实践。
通常，科学方法的第一步是制定一个问题，通常是在观察一个现象之后。例如，假设您一直在饲养毛毛虫，并注意到有些毛毛虫比其他毛毛虫需要更长的时间才能化蛹。你想知道，毛毛虫是否根据温度以不同的速度发育？
这就是科学方法的第二部分，假设的来源。假设是关于我们为什么观察我们观察到的东西的不确定解释，主要有两种类型。第一个是实验或替代假设，它意味着在这种情况下，所研究的变量、温度和毛毛虫发育之间存在关系。因此，我们的实验假设可能是，如果在较冷的温度下饲养毛毛虫，它们从卵到化蛹需要更长的时间。至关重要的是，一个好的假设将是可检验的。对于我们的毛毛虫，我们可以改变温度，记录它们从卵变成蛹所需的时间，并且是可证伪的。因此，如果无论温度如何，毛毛虫的发育都需要大致相同的时间，那么我们可以接受这个假设很可能是错误的。第二种类型的假设是原假设。这通常推测在实验期间不会观察到任何显著的变化或差异。在我们的毛毛虫示例中，我们会指出毛毛虫在每种温度条件下将以相同的速度发育。
一旦我们有了假设，科学方法的第三步就包括实验和数据收集。在典型的实验中，将有两种类型的变量。自变量是由实验者直接纵的东西。因此，对于我们的毛毛虫，当我们改变温度时，我们会改变自变量。因变量（也称为响应变量）应受自变量状态的影响。因此，当我们将毛毛虫暴露在不同的温度下时，响应（因变量）就是它们发育的速度。
还可以收集两种主要类型的数据来支持或证伪假设。首先是定性数据，通常是指用感官、视觉、触摸、听觉、嗅觉甚至味觉进行的描述性观察。在我们的实验中，我们可能会记录到，与较冷的毛毛虫相比，毛毛虫在常温条件下似乎四处移动并吃得很多。与定性数据相比，定量数据可以测量并写成数字。因此，当我们计算毛毛虫从孵化到最终化蛹所需的小时数时，这给了我们一个明确的数字。在可能的情况下，在我们纵自变量的任何实验中，有一个控制条件几乎是很重要的。在我们的毛毛虫实验中，我们可以在 21 度的设定标准室温下培养毛毛虫作为对照，因为与实验设置相比，这展示了毛毛虫在正常条件下发育时会发生什么。
在观察性实验中，可能不需要甚至不可能进行控制。例如，想象一下我们的毛毛虫现在已经长大了，在花园里以花蜜为食。在我们的实验假设中，我们认为它们更喜欢以粉红色的大花为食，而我们的零假设表明它们没有偏好，会随机访问花朵。在这种情况下，只需观察和记录蝴蝶访问每种花类型的次数，就可以提供足够的数据来确认或否定我们的假设，而无需作任何变量或进行控制。
收集数据后，下一步就是弄清楚这一切意味着什么。科学家们将比较他们两个假设的预测，以确定他们是否可以拒绝零假设。这可以通过比较对照条件和实验条件中因变量的值来完成。如果它们不相等，则可以拒绝原假设。如果收集的数据支持一个假设，比如毛毛虫在凉爽的气候中从卵到蛹确实需要更多的时间，那么这让实验假设更可信，但关键是它并不表明该假设绝对正确，因为未来的实验可能会揭示新的信息。
科学方法的最后一部分是我们得出结论并讨论我们的发现可能意味着什么的地方。在这里，科学家可能会参考其他实验或其他文献，将他们的发现放在上下文中，并解释为什么结果显示了他们所做的。例如，结论可能是毛毛虫喜欢在最接近其自然栖息地的温度下生长。这反过来可能会引发新的问题，比如其他物种在不同温度下也以不同的速度化蛹吗？这可能会激发新的实验，我们可以使用科学方法进行测试。

科学方法

科学方法用于解决问题和解释现象。科学方法的发展与支撑科学发现的哲学变化相吻合，从根本上改变了社会对自然的看法。在欧洲文艺复兴时期，弗朗西斯·培根、伽利略和艾萨克·牛顿等人将科学方法的概念正式化并付诸实践。尽管科学方法从早期概念开始就进行了修订，但大部分框架和哲学今天仍在实践中。
<h4>第 1 步:观察和提问</h4>
在调查之前，科学家必须确定要解决的问题。科学过程中至关重要的第一步涉及观察一些感兴趣的自然现象。然后，这个观察应该会导致一些关于这种现象的问题。这个阶段通常需要必要的背景研究，以了解主题和过去关于类似想法的工作。回顾和评估以前的研究使科学家能够改进他们的问题，以更准确地解决科学知识中的差距。定义研究问题并了解相关的先前研究将影响科学方法的应用方式，使其成为研究过程中重要的第一步。
一个日常的例子:你正在努力上学或上班，但你的车无法启动。大多数人在那种情况下所经历的思考过程清楚地反映了官方的科学方法（在你结束了不安之后）。首先，您进行观察:我的车无法启动！接下来的问题是:为什么它不起作用？
<h4>第 2 步:假设</h4>
下一步是根据先验知识做出假设。假设是一种"不确定的解释"或未经证实的猜想，它试图根据在执行后续实验或观察时获得的知识来解释某些现象。通常，科学家会提出多个假设来解决他们的问题并系统地测试它们。
所有假设都必须满足某些标准，科学过程才能发挥作用。首先，假设必须是可检验和可证伪的。假设的这一方面很关键，并且比假设正确重要得多。可检验假设是生成可检验预测的假设，通过观察或实验来解决。可证伪的假设是指通过观察相互矛盾的结果可以证明是错误的假设。这使调查人员能够随着时间的推移获得更多信心，不是通过积累证据证明假设是正确的，而是通过证明可以证明其虚假性的情况不会发生。
假设有两种形式:原假设和替代假设。零假设与备择假设进行检验，并反映试验中不会观察到变化。备择假设通常是前两段中描述的假设，也称为实验假设。备择假设是实验的预测结果。如果原假设被拒绝，则这将为备择假设构建证据。
一个日常的例子:也许外面很冷，因此您的汽车电池很可能没电了。也许您知道前一天晚上的汽油不足，因此油箱很可能是空的。
<h4>第 3 步:实验和数据收集</h4>
无论哪种方式，下一步都是进行更多的观察或进行实验以得出结论。在提出假设之后，科学家们会计划和进行实验来检验他们的假设。这些实验提供的数据将支持或证伪假设。可以从定量或定性观察中收集数据。定性信息是指可以简单地使用感官进行的观察，无论是通过视觉、听觉、味觉、嗅觉还是触觉。相比之下，定量观察是使用某种类型的精确测量来调查一个人的假设的观察。
实验是旨在确定对现实世界的观察是否与假设中得出的预测一致或反驳的过程。如果实验的证据支持一个假设，那么这个假设就会更可信。这并不表示该假设为真，因为未来的实验可能会揭示有关原始假设的新信息。实验设计是科学方法中的另一个关键步骤，可以对实验的结果和结论产生重大影响。应仔细思考并投入时间进行实验设计并尽量减少可能的错误。实验的设计应使可能影响实验结果的每个变量或因素都处于研究人员的控制之下。两种类型的变量用于描述实验中的条件:自变量和因变量或响应变量。自变量由科学家直接纵或控制，通常是人们预测会影响因变量的变量。因此，因变量或响应变量取决于自变量的值。实验通常设计为在实验中纵一个特定因子，以阐明因果关系。
一个日常的例子:汽车还保留着它的所有零件吗？这是正确的键吗？油表上写着什么？快速启动有帮助吗？
实验设计中的另一个重要方面是对照处理的作用，它代表非纵处理条件。对照处理保持在与实验处理相同的条件下，但实验作不应用于对照。例如，如果研究人员正在测试土壤盐分对植物生长的影响，则对照处理中的土壤将不添加盐。该对照提供了"正常"条件的基线，用于比较实验处理。
实验设计还应包括每种处理的重复。实验结果的可重复性是确保数据有效性和准确性的科学方法的重要组成部分。控制实验的所有方面是相当困难的，因此结果存在固有的变化，即使在最精心设计和控制的实验下也无法控制。重复使研究者能够估计结果的这种固有变化。数据的精确记录和测量对于确保结果的准确性和从结果中得出的结论也非常重要。
<h4>第 4 步:结果和数据分析</h4>
科学方法的下一步涉及确定实验结果的含义。科学家将他们的原假设的预测与备择假设的预测进行比较，以确定他们是否能够拒绝原假设。否定原假设意味着对照处理与实验处理中的因变量值彼此不相等的可能性很大。如果存在显著差异，则可以拒绝原假设并接受备择假设。相反，研究者可能无法拒绝零假设，这意味着治疗对结果没有影响。在科学家可以从他们的实验数据或观察中对他们的零假设做出任何声明之前，需要进行统计测试以确保数据的有效性和数据的进一步解释。统计检验使研究人员能够确定对照和实验治疗之间是否存在真正的差异。从那里，他们可以创建图形和表格来说明他们的发现。
<h4>第 5 步:结论</h4>
科学方法的最后一部分涉及提供对结果的解释和可以从结果中逻辑得出的结论。一般来说，科学过程的这一步还需要重新审视科学文献，并将其结果与相关主题的其他实验或观察结果进行比较。这使研究人员能够将他们的实验置于更一般的背景下，并详细说明特定结果的重要性。此外，它还允许他们解释他们的工作如何适应他们学科的更大背景。
科学过程并不止于此！随着科学主题的知识积累并推动我们对解释自然现象的特定机制或过程的理解，科学过程会随着时间的推移而运作。如果我们不能拒绝我们的零假设，那么就有必要重新审视科学方法的初始阶段，并尝试重新表述我们的问题并理解为什么没有达到预期的结果。
<h4>科学方法的应用</h4>
在日常生活中使用这种方法和在实验室中使用这种方法的唯一区别是，科学家们仔细记录他们的工作，从观察到假设再到实验，最后得出结论和同行评审。此外，与实验室外解决问题不同，实验室中的科学方法包括受控条件和变量。
让我们使用实验室中的示例来研究科学方法。众所周知，植物的生长会受到生活在土壤中的微生物（如细菌和真菌）的影响。通过将植物盆栽在完全无菌的土壤中，然后一次加入一个微生物或以不同的组合加入并测量植物的生长，可以弄清楚哪些微生物具有哪些影响。现在让我们将其放入用于描述科学方法的术语中:
观察和问题: 土壤中存在微生物，这些微生物会影响植物生长吗？
假设:
实验性:一种感兴趣的特定微生物会导致植物生长得更慢。
Null:微生物的存在与否对植物生长没有影响
实验:在 1） 无菌土壤中建立植物组，2） 添加微生物的土壤，以及 3） 天然土壤。使用尺子测量植物随时间的生长。
结论:如果第 2 组中的植物比其他两种植物生长得更慢，则该假设得到支持。这需要许多植物的统计分析来支持，才能被认为是显著的。像这样的实验每组只有一株植物是不合法的。
第 1 组是一个对照，显示植物可以在无菌土壤中生长。第 3 组是显示植物在正常条件下可以生长的对照。第 2 组是实验组。可以添加不同数量的微生物或不同的微生物，以引入更多变量。重点是研究人员有一些东西可以比较实验组 - 对照组。如果实验只包括第 2 组，并且研究人员确定植物 "看起来生病了"，那将是一个见仁见智的问题。使这种观察结果科学化的唯一方法是用健康的植物来测量。使用的微生物的类型或数量是自变量，因为研究人员可以控制它。试验结束时植物的大小是因变量或响应变量，因为它是结果。
最终，像这样的工作发表在科学期刊上，以便其他研究人员可以阅读所使用的方法和得出的结论。像这样的出版物需要经过同行评审，这意味着在其他研究人员检查并同意它做得好之前，一篇文章不会在期刊上发表。作为一个科学家社区，一般概念是根据科学家个体进行的实验中观察到的模式开发的。这导致了科学理论的发展。该术语意味着研究人员一致认为存在特定概念或过程。重要的是要注意，理论这个词与假设的含义不同。一旦科学家用这个术语标记一个概念，考虑到所有当前可用的数据，它就被认为是正确的。当然，如果大量的实验证明了相反的信息，理论是可以修改的。

科学方法用于解决问题和解释现象。科学方法的发展与哲学的变化相吻合......

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scientific method steps and controls

The scientific method gives scientists a way to solve problems and explain natural events. Its development grew alongside new ideas in science during the European Renaissance. Thinkers such as Francis Bacon, Galileo, and Isaac Newton helped formalize the process. Although the method has changed over time, much of its basic framework is still used today.

The process begins with observation and a clear question. A scientist first notices a natural phenomenon and then asks why it happens. This stage often includes background research. Reading earlier studies helps refine the question and identify gaps in scientific knowledge. In everyday life, this can look like noticing that a car will not start and asking why it is not working.

Next comes the hypothesis. A hypothesis is an unproven explanation based on prior knowledge. Scientists often develop more than one hypothesis and test them in a systematic way. A good hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable, which means it can produce predictions and can also be shown wrong. Hypotheses are often written as a null hypothesis, which predicts no change, and an alternative hypothesis, which predicts the expected outcome. If the null hypothesis is rejected, that supports the alternative hypothesis.

After that, scientists collect data through experiments or more observations. Experiments are designed to test the predictions made by a hypothesis. Data may be qualitative, based on the senses, or quantitative, based on measurements. Careful experimental design is important because it helps reduce error and control factors that could affect the outcome. The independent variable is the factor the scientist changes, and the dependent, or response, variable is the result that is measured.

Controls and replicates are also essential. A control treatment is a condition that is not manipulated, but it is kept under the same conditions as the experimental treatment. It provides a baseline for comparison. Replicates, or repeated trials, help scientists estimate natural variation in the data and check that results can be repeated. Precise recording and measurement make the results more reliable.

Scientists then analyze the results to see what the data mean. They compare the null hypothesis with the alternative hypothesis and use statistical tests before making claims. Statistics help show whether differences between control and experimental treatments are real. Results are often displayed in figures and tables so they can be reviewed and understood more easily.

The final step is drawing conclusions. Scientists explain what the results mean and compare them with earlier research on related topics. This places the work in a wider scientific context and shows how it fits into the field. The scientific process does not end there. If the null hypothesis is not rejected, scientists return to the earlier steps and revise the question or hypothesis.

In lab work, the scientific method is carefully documented from start to finish. It also includes controlled conditions and variables. A plant-microbe experiment shows how this works. Researchers can grow plants in sterile soil, add one microbe at a time, or use natural soil, then measure plant growth with a ruler. In this example, the question is whether microbes affect plant growth. The experimental hypothesis is that one microbe will slow growth, and the null hypothesis is that microbes will have no effect.

The setup includes a control group and an experimental group. One group shows that plants can grow in sterile soil, and another shows that plants can grow in natural soil. The group with the added microbe is the experimental group. The type or amount of microbe is the independent variable, and plant size at the end is the dependent variable. A claim based on only one plant per group would not be valid. The results must be supported by statistical analysis from many plants.

Work like this is published in scientific journals so other researchers can read the methods and conclusions. These publications are checked through peer review before they are accepted. Over time, patterns from many experiments help scientists build broader ideas about how nature works. This is how scientific theory develops. In science, theory means a concept supported by a strong body of evidence, not a guess.

Scientific Method Steps and Controls

scientific method

The scientific method gives scientists a way to solve problems and explain natural events. Its development grew alongside new ideas in science during the European Renaissance. Thinkers such as Francis Bacon, Galileo, and Isaac Newton helped formalize the process. Although the method has changed over time, much of its basic framework is still used today. The process begins with observation and a clear question. A scientist first notices a natural phenomenon and then asks why it happens. This...

diffusion and osmosis

Cell Membrane Transport and Water Balance

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Cell Types and Organelles

Cells are the basic units of life, and their structures help explain how living things work. Cell theory says that every living organism is made of one or more cells, cells are the functional units of organisms, and new cells come from preexisting cells. Cells also share key features, including a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, DNA, and ribosomes. The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that surrounds the cell. It separates the cell from its environment and controls what enters and leaves.

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Biomolecules and Their Tests

Biomolecules are the organic molecules that living things use for structure, energy, and heredity. They all have a carbon backbone and hydrogen atoms, and carbon can form four covalent bonds. That bonding flexibility lets carbon build chains, branches, rings, and other complex shapes. Biomolecules also commonly include oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. Small building blocks join together to make larger molecules. These units are called monomers. Two monomers can form a dimer through...

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Learn the scientific method through observation, hypotheses, experiments, controls, variables, data analysis, conclusions, and a plant-microbe example.

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The scientific method is used to solve problems and explain phenomena. The development of the scientific method coincided with changes in philosophy ...

Scientific Laws and Theories

Scientific Laws

In science, a law is defined as a concise, verbal or mathematical, statement that summarizes a vast number of experimental observations. ...

The Scientific Method

The scientific method is a detailed, empirical problem-solving process used by biologists and other scientists. This iterative approach involves ...

Chemistry is an empirical science. Scientists often pose questions to understand the chemistry in everyday life and seek answers to these questions. To ...

What is a Hypothesis?

A hypothesis can be a simple sentence or statement about a property or any phenomenon observed or predicted for a population. It is usually a claim about ...

Types of Hypothesis Testing

There are three types of hypothesis tests: right-tailed, left-tailed, and two-tailed.
When the null and alternative hypotheses are stated, it is observed ...

Hypothesis: Accept or Fail to Reject?

The outcome of any hypothesis testing leads to rejecting or not rejecting the null hypothesis. This decision is taken based on the analysis of the data, ...

The student will demonstrate an understanding of scientific and engineering practices by asking questions and defining problems
• ask questions that arise from careful observation of phenomena, examination of a model or theory, or unexpected results, and/or to seek additional information
• determine which questions can be investigated within the scope of the school laboratory or field experience
• generate hypotheses based on research and scientific principles
• make hypotheses that specify what happens to a dependent variable when an independent variable is manipulated
• define design problems that involve the development of a process or system with multiple components and criteria

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion. It is uncertain and operates in ...

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning, or deduction, is the type of logic used in hypothesis-based science. In deductive reasoning, the pattern of thinking moves in the ...

Correlation and Causation

Correlation and CausationStatistical tests can calculate whether there is a relationship, or correlation, between independent and dependent variables. A ...

Demonstrating the Scientific Method with Tree Branches
ExpandObtain branches containing a few dozen typical leaves from five different local tree species. ...

Observation and Background Research
ExpandNOTE: The first two steps in the scientific process involve studying and observing natural phenomena of ...

The student will demonstrate an understanding of scientific and engineering practices by planning and carrying out investigations
• individually and collaboratively plan and conduct observational and experimental investigations
• plan and conduct investigations to test design solutions in a safe and ethical manner including considerations of environmental, social and personal effects
• select and use appropriate tools and technology to collect, record, analyze, and evaluate data

Introduction to Test of Independence

In statistics, the term independence means that one can directly obtain the probability of any event involving both variables by multiplying their ...

Statistical Analysis: Overview

An analysis is usually conducted by replicated sampling or repeated measurements on the same sample. This leads to scattered results rather than a single ...

Statistical Significance

Once data is collected from both the experimental and the control groups, a statistical analysis is conducted to find out if there are meaningful ...

Review and Preview

Data are individual items of information obtained from a population or sample. Data may be classified as qualitative (categorical), quantitative ...

Data: Types and Distribution

In biostatistics, data refers to the collected observations that are subject to analysis. Data can be parametric or nonparametric.
Nonparametric data ...

Histogram

The histogram is a graphical representation in the x-y form of data distribution in a data set. The horizontal x-axis is labeled with what the data ...

Scatter Plot

The most common and easiest way to display the relationship between two variables, x and y, is a scatter plot. A scatter plot shows the direction of a ...

Bar Graph

A bar graph is also called a bar chart and consists of bars that are separated from each other. It either uses horizontal or vertical bars to show ...

Pie Chart

A pie chart (or a pie graph) is a circular graphical chart or a pictorial representation of categorical data. It is divided into slices of pie each ...

Numerical Calculations

In engineering applications, the representation of the numerical value is critical. Presenting or reporting the answer is one of the essential parts of ...

Accuracy and Precision

Scientists typically make repeated measurements of a quantity to ensure the quality of their findings and to evaluate both the precision and the accuracy ...

Significant Figures in Calculations

Uncertainty in measurements can be avoided by reporting the results of a calculation with the correct number of significant figures. This can be ...

Realism in Experimentation

Source: Laboratories of Gary Lewandowski, Dave Strohmetz, and Natalie Ciarocco&#8212;Monmouth University

In an ideal world researchers would conduct ...

The student will demonstrate an understanding of scientific and engineering practices by pnterpreting, analyzing, and evaluating data
• construct and interpret data tables showing independent and dependent variables, repeated trials, and means
• construct, analyze, and interpret graphical displays of data and consider limitations of data analysis
• apply mathematical concepts and processes to scientific questions
• use data in building and revising models, supporting explanations of phenomena, or testing solutions to problems
• analyze data using tools, technologies, and/or models in order to make valid and reliable scientific claims or determine an optimal design solution

ES.1.c

Data Collection by Observations

Data collection refers to a systematic way of obtaining, observing, measuring, and analyzing accurate information. Observational studies are one of the ...

Data Collection by Experiments

Data collection is a systematic method of obtaining, observing, measuring, and analyzing accurate information. An experimental study is a standard method ...

Data Collection by Survey

The systematic method of obtaining and analyzing accurate information of a population is called data collection. A survey is a standard method of data ...

Reliability and Validity

Reliability and validity are two important considerations that must be made with any type of data collection. Reliability refers to the ability to ...

Reasoning

Reasoning involves transforming information into conclusions, which is essential for problem-solving, decision-making, and critical thinking.
Reasoning ...

The student will demonstrate an understanding of scientific and engineering practices by constructing and critiquing conclusions and explanations
• make quantitative and/or qualitative claims based on data
• construct and revise explanations based on valid and reliable evidence obtained from a variety of sources, including students' own investigations, models, theories, simulations, and peer review
• apply scientific ideas, principles, and/or evidence to provide an explanation of phenomena or design solutions
• construct arguments or counterarguments based on data and evidence
• differentiate between a scientific hypothesis, theory, and law

ES.1.d

using-topographic-maps-to-generate-topographic-profiles

Using Topographic Maps to Generate Topographic Profiles

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Topographic maps are &#34;plan-view&#34; representations of Earth&#39;s ...

The student will demonstrate an understanding of scientific and engineering practices by developing and using models
• evaluate the merits and limitations of models
• develop, revise, and/or use models based on evidence to illustrate or predict relationships
• construct and interpret scales, diagrams, classification charts, graphs, tables, imagery, models, including geologic cross sections and topographic profiles
• read and interpret topographic and basic geologic maps and globes, including location by latitude and longitude

ES.1.e

Data Source

A data source is the origin of collected data, whether physical or digital, and includes all channels, platforms, and repositories for gathering and ...

Communication

Sharing information, concepts, and emotions to foster mutual understanding is communication. The sender, recipient, and transaction must be considered in ...

levels-of-communication-i-intrapersonal-interpersonal-and-small-group

Levels of Communication I: Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, and Small Group

Interpersonal communication focuses on the exchange of messages between two people.
We can participate in these relationships through verbal, nonverbal, ...

levels-of-communication-ii-organizational-public-and-group-dynamics

Levels of Communication II: Organizational, Public, and Group Dynamics

Effective communication is the foundation of a good organization. Communication is the lifeblood of an organization that connects the group with messages. ...

The student will demonstrate an understanding of scientific and engineering practices by obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information
• compare, integrate, and evaluate sources of information presented in different media or formats to address a scientific question or solve a problem
• gather, read, and evaluate scientific and/or technical information from multiple sources, assessing the evidence and credibility of each source
• communicate scientific and/or technical information about phenomena and/or a design process in multiple formats

Scientific Method Steps and Controls

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