Name: cell types and organelles
Uploaded: 2019-01-29T11:04:45.000Z
Duration: 2 min 56 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Biology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms- Structures and Processes

LS.Bio.1.3

Cell Structure

Life, from the largest organisms to the most minuscule, is comprised of cells. Cells are the building blocks for life and provide the materials needed for life to exist. 
While cells from all walks of life contain structures that are similar, such as DNA and protein, there are two different cell types based on how such structures are organized internally. Prokaryotic cells, those of bacteria and archaea, are simple in their organization. For example, while their genome is densely packed, it is not surrounded by a membrane. Eukaryotic cells, those making up animals, plants, and fungi are more complex. They compartmentalize their internal structures into organelles, membrane-bound structures that carry out specific functions. In contrast to prokaryotes, eukaryotic DNA is enclosed in a nuclear membrane. Other organelles include the endoplasmic reticulum, the mitochondrion, and the lysosome. 
The first cells on earth appear in the fossil record from around 3.7 billion years ago and were thought to have been prokaryotic. Eukaryotic cells first appeared around 2.4 billion years ago when an amoeba like cell engulfed a bacterial cell and formed a stable coexistence. Over time, this cell within cell evolved to form structures such as the chloroplast and the mitochondrion. 
Plants and animals also have diverse metabolic and structural needs, leading to further differences in their cells. Because plants need to make their own energy, plant cells contain chloroplasts that aid in photosynthesis. The plant cell also includes a large vacuole to store proteins, metabolites, and water. Lastly, plant cells also have a rigid cell wall, necessary for growth and water retention. 
Since cells are so small, they can only be seen using microscopy. One of the simplest ways to view cells is through the bright field microscope. This microscope contains a light source, a condenser lens to focus the light, an ocular lens to view the specimen, and an objective lens for magnification. A microscope is not the only thing needed to visualize the invisible. The structures within the cells are transparent, so the cells must be stained with dyes. For example, safranin is used to stain cell nuclei red. 
In this laboratory exercise, you will use a compound microscope to visualize cheek and plant cells.

cell structure

<h4>Background</h4>
Cells represent the most basic biological units of all organisms, whether it be simple, single-celled organisms like bacteria, or large, multicellular organisms like elephants and giant redwood trees. In the mid 19th century, the Cell Theory was proposed to define a cell, which states:
<ul>
	<li>Every living organism is made up of one or more cells.</li>
	<li>The cells are the functional units of all organisms.</li>
	<li>All cells arise from preexisting cells.</li>
</ul>
All cells share common features such as having a plasma membrane, a cytoplasm, DNA, and ribosomes. A plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that surrounds the cell. This thin and fluid layer around the cells serves to isolate the cell&#8217;s contents from its environment and regulates the material exchange with its environment, while also facilitating interactions with other cells. Inside the plasma membrane, the cell is filled with a gel-like fluid called cytoplasm that contains organic molecules, salts, and other materials that are vital for the cell&#8217;s functions. Therefore, biochemical reactions that support life, which are known as metabolic processes, take place inside the cytoplasm. The types of metabolic processes that a cell can execute depend on its genetic information. All cells use DNA as the genetic material, which is the hereditary blueprint to construct cellular structures and products. Finally, all cells use ribosomes to synthesize their protein products.
There are two types of cells based on their genetic material location: prokaryotic, which means &#8220;before nucleus&#8221;, and eukaryotic, which means &#8220;true nucleus&#8221;. Therefore, while both types of organisms have DNA, prokaryotes like bacteria have nucleoids, or &#8220;nucleus-like&#8221; components instead of a nucleus, whereas eukaryotes possess true, membrane-bound nuclei to contain their DNA. Moreover, prokaryotes are relatively small, around 0.1&#8211;5.0 micrometers (&#181;m), in comparison to eukaryotes that can typically range from 10-100 &#181;m in size. The small size of prokaryotes allows quick and effortless distribution of materials within the cell and execution of metabolic processes, as well as swift removal of waste or other products from the cell. Hence, eukaryotic cells possess specialized structures known as organelles, such as mitochondria or Golgi apparatus, to enable the execution of vital functions.
<h4>The Eukaryotic Cell</h4>
The eukaryotic cell is a shared derived trait of all eukaryotes, meaning that it had a single origin that has since been inherited by all eukaryotes. The earliest eukaryotic cells are seen in fossils about 2.4 billion years ago, and are recognizable because they are larger than prokaryotic cells1. The origin of this cell type resulted from an endosymbiotic event in which one amoeba-like cell engulfed a micrococcal bacteria and formed a stable coexistence2. The engulfed bacteria evolved into the first energy-producing organelles, mitochondria, which are the aerobic metabolism organelles in the cell. Mitochondria have their own separate genome and are similar in size to prokaryotes. They contain two layers of membranes that enclose two distinct compartments. Some of the reactions that break down high-energy biomolecules occur in the inner compartment, whereas the outer compartment houses the reactions that capture the energy released from these compounds into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules to be used as the energy currency of the cell.
Nuclei and mitochondria are not the only shared structures of eukaryotic cells. Other ubiquitous eukaryotic organelles are the smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, lysosomes and vacuoles. Endoplasmic reticulum simply means &#8220;network inside the plasma&#8221; and as its name indicates it is a large network of membranes inside the cell, especially around the nucleus. Parts of the rough ER extend from the nuclear membrane and are distinguished from the smooth ER by their rough appearance due to numerous ribosomes on their surface. Rough ER is the site for protein synthesis, such as the proteins that are embedded in the plasma membrane or the proteins that are secreted from the cell. In contrast, smooth ER produces lipid-based products but also contains enzymes to detoxify harmful chemicals. Hence liver cells contain abundant smooth ER. Also, muscle cells contain significant amounts of smooth ER because of the calcium-storing function of this organelle, which is essential for muscle contraction. The Golgi apparatus sorts, modifies, and packages cellular products inside vesicles, which fuse with the plasma membrane to release the products. Some of the proteins that are produced in the rough ER are intracellular digestive enzymes. These enzymes are packed in the Golgi apparatus into special vesicles called lysosomes. The major function of the lysosomes is to digest the food particles engulfed by the cell as well as old cell parts. Vacuoles are sacs of cell membrane that serve as storage units within cells. They may serve to store water to regulate the cell&#8217;s water content as well as store metabolic products or even poisonous molecules, depending on the cell type and the organism.
<h4>Kingdom-specific Organelles</h4>
Eukaryotic cells also developed distinct organelles, specific for each kingdom. For instance, kingdom Plantae and Animalia are both eukaryotic, however the organelles of plant and animal cells differ in key ways that allow them to carry out their lives as producers and consumers, respectively. Terrestrial plants need to grow tall and have rigid stems to hold leaves, which they use for photosynthesis. They also need to be able to retain water taken up by roots. Their cells reflect these specific needs. Unlike animal cells, plant cells have chloroplasts, which are used for photosynthesis and often contain the green pigment chlorophyll. Additionally, they are surrounded by cell walls, which are rigid outer layers made of cellulose to support growth and water retention. Because they need to store large amounts of water to maintain the water pressure in the cell, they have larger vacuoles than animal cells. In addition, plant cells also have another type of specialized storage organelles called plastids, which contain pigments as well as photosynthetic products such as starch. These differences are noticeable and distinguish plant cells from animal cells: plant cells generally have a regular, rectangular shape due to their rigid cell walls, while animal cells are rounded and more irregular.
<h4>Microscopy</h4>
Some cells, such as frog oocytes, are large enough to be seen with the naked eye, yet most cells cannot be seen without any visual aid. Therefore, scientists use microscopy techniques to study cell structures and distinguish cell types from one another. While microscopes are able to magnify objects that are difficult or impossible to be see with the human eye, most tissues naturally lack pigmentation. Therefore, solutions have been created that can selectively stain cells based on their molecular composition. This allows researchers to distinguish between organelles in a cell, tissue types in a plant stem, and fat layers in animals, just to name a few examples. Methylene blue dye stains nucleic acids of dead cells, binding to negatively charged DNA. Safranin solution is another biological dye that stains cell nuclei red. Cells only need to be in the staining solutions for a short period of time, and can be mounted immediately following the staining step. The commonly used mounting techniques are wet mount and oil immersion. A wet mount is created by collecting a sample and putting it on a glass slide with liquid between the slide and the coverslip. Cell samples are suspended in liquids like water or glycerol. Glycerol is better to use with live cultures, because it prevents the proliferation of bacteria3. Immersion oil can be added on top of the coverslip to improve viewing of the sample at high magnification. This is accomplished because the oil has the same refractive index as glass, which means that it allows light to pass through it as well as glass would. The glass-air interface scatters light more than oil or glass, so the clarity of the image is affected when samples are mounted &#8220;dry&#8221;, or without oil. Once the cells are stained and mounted, they are ready to be studied under the microscope.
There are various microscopy techniques from electron scanning technology that has allowed researchers to view objects on an atomic level to fluorescent live cell imaging that allows real-time monitoring of the movement of molecules within individual cells4. Bright-field microscopy is the simplest microscopy technique, requiring only a halogen source light, a condenser lens to focus the light, an ocular lens to view the image, and an objective lens to magnify the image. With any microscopy technique, it is important to understand the parts of a microscope before using one. In general, compound microscopes used for bright-field imaging have an eyepiece at the top of the scope, which is attached to the head and objectives. The eyepiece has a magnification of 10X, and objective lenses are set to a particular magnification in a range of 4X-100X. There are between three and five objectives on a standard microscope. The objectives point down to the stage, which is where a specimen is placed for viewing. The stage often has mechanical parts and stage clips to hold a slide and move it around while viewing. An aperture is a hole in the stage for light to pass through. This light is controlled by an adjustable condenser lens above an illuminator, or light source. To control the zoom of the stage for the object being viewed, microscopes feature coarse and fine focus adjustment knobs. The coarse focus knob moves on a larger scale than the fine focus, but they are on the same axis. The fine focus is useful when the object on the stage has been brought close to the objectives. It is important not to let the objective lens touch the object on the stage, as it can scratch the lens. Objects should always be first viewed on the lowest magnification objective and clearly focused before switching to higher magnification objectives.
Microscopy is an important tool for many aspects of the medical field including research, diagnosis, and treatment. This has the application of using nanotechnology in medicine, as a new treatment method in place of a more invasive surgery5. Surgeons also make use of microscopes, some of which have been modified to be mounted on a surgeon&#8217;s head and are operated with foot pedals. These are of much lower magnification than even the light microscopes used today, but they facilitate the safe execution of delicate procedures, such as optical and neurosurgery.
<h4>References</h4>
<ol class="references">
	<li>Bengtson S, Rasmussen B, Ivarsson M, Muhling J, Broman C, Marone F, Stampanoni M, Bekker A. Fungus-like mycelial fossils in 2.4-billion-year-old vesicular basalt. Nature Ecology &#38; Evolution. 2017, Vol. 1, Article number: 0141.</li>
	<li>Vellai T, Vida G. The origin of eukaryotes: the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 1999, Vol. 266, 1571-1577.</li>
	<li>Gouet V, Roger G, Fonty C, Andre P. Effects of glycerol on the growth, adhesion, and cellulolytic activity of rumen cellulolytic bacteria and anaerobic fungi. Current Microbiology. 24, 1992, Vol. 4, 197-201.</li>
	<li>Cognet L, Leduc C, Lounis B. Advances in live-cell single-particle tracking and dynamic super-resolution imaging. Curr Opin Chem Biol. 2014, Jun; 20:78-85.</li>
	<li>Asiyanbola B, Soboyejo W. For the surgeon: an introduction to nanotechnology. J Surg Educ. 2008, Vol. 65, 2 (155-61).</li>
</ol>

Background
Cells represent the most basic biological units of all organisms, whether it be simple, single-celled organisms like bacteria, or large, ...

Education

JoVE Lab Manual

Fundamentals

cell types and organelles

Cells are the basic units of life, and their structures help explain how living things work. Cell theory says that every living organism is made of one or more cells, cells are the functional units of organisms, and new cells come from preexisting cells. Cells also share key features, including a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, DNA, and ribosomes.

The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that surrounds the cell. It separates the cell from its environment and controls what enters and leaves. Inside it, the cytoplasm is a gel-like fluid that contains organic molecules, salts, and other materials needed for cell activity. Many metabolic processes, or life-supporting chemical reactions, take place there.

Cells use DNA as their genetic material, which acts as the blueprint for cellular structures and products. Ribosomes make proteins. Cells are often grouped as prokaryotic or eukaryotic based on where their genetic material is found. Prokaryotes, such as bacteria, have nucleoids instead of a true nucleus, while eukaryotes have membrane-bound nuclei.

Prokaryotic cells are usually small, about 0.1 to 5.0 micrometers, while eukaryotic cells are often 10 to 100 micrometers. Their small size helps prokaryotes move materials quickly and remove waste efficiently. Eukaryotic cells use organelles, such as mitochondria and the Golgi apparatus, to carry out important functions.

Eukaryotic cells are thought to have a shared origin and appear in fossils about 2.4 billion years ago. The earliest eukaryotic cells were larger than prokaryotic cells and likely formed through an endosymbiotic event. In this event, an amoeba-like cell engulfed a micrococcal bacterium, and that bacterium later became the mitochondrion. Mitochondria perform aerobic metabolism and have their own genome.

Mitochondria have two membranes that enclose two compartments. Some reactions that break down high-energy biomolecules happen in the inner compartment. Other reactions in the outer compartment capture released energy and convert it into ATP, the cell’s energy currency. Eukaryotic cells also contain the smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles.

The endoplasmic reticulum means “network inside the plasma,” and it forms a membrane network around the nucleus. Rough ER has ribosomes on its surface and makes proteins, including proteins for the plasma membrane and proteins that are secreted from the cell. Smooth ER makes lipid-based products and helps detoxify harmful chemicals, which is why liver cells contain much of it. Muscle cells also have a lot of smooth ER because it stores calcium needed for contraction.

The Golgi apparatus sorts, modifies, and packages cellular products into vesicles. Some proteins made in the rough ER are digestive enzymes. The Golgi packages these enzymes into lysosomes, which digest food particles taken into the cell and break down old cell parts. Vacuoles are membrane sacs used for storage, including water, metabolic products, or even poisonous molecules, depending on the cell.

Plant and animal cells are both eukaryotic, but they do not have the same organelles. Plant cells have chloroplasts for photosynthesis and often contain chlorophyll, the green pigment. They also have cell walls made of cellulose, which give support and help with water retention. Their larger vacuoles help maintain water pressure, and they also contain plastids that store pigments and products such as starch.

These differences make plant cells and animal cells easy to tell apart. Plant cells usually have a regular, rectangular shape because of their rigid cell walls. Animal cells are more rounded and irregular. Cell walls, chloroplasts, and large vacuoles are key features that distinguish plant cells from animal cells.

Many cells are too small to see without help, so scientists use microscopy to study them. Some cells, such as frog oocytes, are large enough to see with the naked eye, but most samples need magnification. Because many tissues lack color, stains are used to highlight cell parts and tissue types. Methylene blue stains nucleic acids in dead cells by binding to DNA, and safranin stains cell nuclei red.

After staining, cells can be mounted as a wet mount or with immersion oil. In a wet mount, the sample is placed on a slide with liquid between the slide and coverslip. Water or glycerol can be used as the liquid, and glycerol is better for live cultures because it prevents bacterial growth. Immersion oil improves high-magnification viewing because it has the same refractive index as glass and reduces light scattering.

Once stained and mounted, the sample is ready for the microscope. Microscopy methods range from electron scanning technology, which can view objects at atomic scale, to fluorescent live-cell imaging, which tracks molecules in real time. Bright-field microscopy is the simplest method and uses a halogen light source, condenser lens, ocular lens, and objective lens.

Compound microscopes have an eyepiece, a head with objectives, and a stage for the specimen. The eyepiece usually has 10X magnification, and objective lenses commonly range from 4X to 100X. The stage may have clips and mechanical parts to move the slide, and light passes through an aperture in the stage. Coarse and fine focus knobs control sharpness, and the slide should be viewed first at low magnification before moving higher.

Microscopy is important in medicine for research, diagnosis, and treatment. It also supports newer approaches such as nanotechnology in medicine, which can reduce the need for more invasive surgery. Surgeons use modified microscopes as well, including head-mounted models operated with foot pedals. These lower-magnification tools help doctors perform delicate procedures such as optical and neurosurgery safely.

Cell Types and Organelles

scientific method

Scientific Method Steps and Controls

The scientific method gives scientists a way to solve problems and explain natural events. Its development grew alongside new ideas in science during the European Renaissance. Thinkers such as Francis Bacon, Galileo, and Isaac Newton helped formalize the process. Although the method has changed over time, much of its basic framework is still used today. The process begins with observation and a clear question. A scientist first notices a natural phenomenon and then asks why it happens. This...

diffusion and osmosis

Cell Membrane Transport and Water Balance

Cell membrane transport and water balance help cells move materials in and out of the cytoplasm. Cell membranes are semipermeable, which means some molecules can pass through while others cannot. The phospholipid bilayer and its embedded proteins control this movement. Some of these proteins act as transport channels for ions and carbohydrates that could not cross on their own. Cells stay small in part because of the surface-area to volume ratio. As a cell grows, its surface area does not keep...

Cells are the basic units of life, and their structures help explain how living things work. Cell theory says that every living organism is made of one or more cells, cells are the functional units of organisms, and new cells come from preexisting cells. Cells also share key features, including a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, DNA, and ribosomes. The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that surrounds the cell. It separates the cell from its environment and controls what enters and leaves.

macromolecules

Biomolecules and Their Tests

Biomolecules are the organic molecules that living things use for structure, energy, and heredity. They all have a carbon backbone and hydrogen atoms, and carbon can form four covalent bonds. That bonding flexibility lets carbon build chains, branches, rings, and other complex shapes. Biomolecules also commonly include oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. Small building blocks join together to make larger molecules. These units are called monomers. Two monomers can form a dimer through...

physiology of the circulatory system

Circulatory System: Blood Flow and Pressure

The circulatory system moves blood, oxygen, nutrients, and wastes through the body to support homeostasis. Homeostasis is the stable internal balance that organisms must maintain even when the outside environment changes. Physiology is the study of how body systems work, and the circulatory system is one of the key systems that helps keep internal conditions steady. Body systems are built from cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. Humans have 11 major organ systems, and they work together...

fundamentals

Explore how prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ, what organelles do, and how microscopes reveal cell structures in plants and animals.

Cell Types and Organelles | JoVE K12

Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

Life Science

Structure and Function

3.1.9-12.A

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

Cells

Cell structure and function

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

BIO.3

BIO.3.a

LS.2

LS.2.a

LS.2.c

Arizona Science Standards

High School

HS+B.L1

HS+B.L1U1.4

Next Generation Science Standards

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

HS-LS1-1

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.L.14

SC.912.L.14.3

SC.912.L.14.5

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

HS-LS1-1.

Inheritance and Variation of Traits

HS-LS1-4.

Prepare onion film samples and microscopes for viewing onion and cheek cells. Learn the setup steps for a clear high school lab investigation.

Microscope Prep for Onion and Cheek Cells | JoVE K12

Compare onion plant cells and human cheek cells under a compound microscope. Learn slide prep, staining, magnification, and visible cell differences.

Microscope Comparison of Onion and Cheek Cells | JoVE K12

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LS.Bio.1.2

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The Nucleus

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LS.Bio.1.5

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Cell Types and Organelles

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