Name: cellular energy from glucose breakdown
Uploaded: 2019-01-29T11:04:45.000Z
Duration: 5 min
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Biology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms- Structures and Processes

LS.Bio.3.3

Cellular Respiration

所有生命体都需要能量来源以维持其生命活动。而这一能量的最终来源是太阳。那么，地球上的生物是如何利用这种能量的呢？这一切始于光合作用生物。这些生物能够吸收二氧化碳和水，并利用从太阳光中捕获的光子能量，将这些分子结合在一起，生成葡萄糖和氧气。葡萄糖是下一步关键过程的核心，几乎所有生物都以某种形式依赖这一过程——细胞呼吸。细胞呼吸由酶催化完成，在原核生物中发生于细胞膜上，在真核生物中则发生于线粒体内。

化学反应首先通过氧气分解葡萄糖，重新生成二氧化碳和水；在此过程中，最初用于合成葡萄糖分子的能量被转移到两个新的位置：一部分用于合成ATP（即三磷酸腺苷分子），这是一种细胞可直接利用的能量来源；其余能量则以热能形式散失。到目前为止，我们讨论的是一种利用氧气的细胞呼吸方式，称为有氧呼吸。但某些生物和细胞能够在无氧条件下进行呼吸，这被称为无氧呼吸。与产生二氧化碳和水不同，该过程的副产物是乙醇。发酵就是这类呼吸方式的一个例子，酵母正是通过这种方式在密闭容器中产生酒精。我们可以使用一种称为呼吸计的工具来测量有氧呼吸。这种装置非常简单，用于测量生物体（在此实验中为萌发的植物种子）消耗的氧气量。萌发的种子正在进行呼吸作用，这意味着它们会消耗氧气并释放二氧化碳。由于它们尚未长出绿色部分，因此不会进行光合作用。

利用呼吸计测量呼吸作用时，采用了一种基于理想气体定律的巧妙方法，即 P × V = n × R × T。其中，P 代表系统的压力，V 代表气体体积，n 代表气体的物质的量（摩尔数），R 为理想气体常数&#8230;其中T为绝对温度。简而言之，这意味着在已知压力和温度的条件下，通过测量气体体积即可计算出样品中气体分子的数量，因为R是一个常数。

呼吸计中含有氢氧化钾，可将二氧化碳以碳酸钾的固体形式固定。因此，由于细胞呼吸作用，密封管中的氧气被种子消耗，同时释放出二氧化碳，而二氧化碳又会被氢氧化钾转化为碳酸钾而被捕获。随着细胞呼吸的进行，系统内气体的总体积随之减少。我们可通过将呼吸计连接至一种称为压力计的装置来量化这一变化。当氧气分子被消耗时，呼吸计腔内的压力下降，导致毛细管中的有色液体向低压方向移动。通过读取压力计液面的刻度值，即可估算呼吸计管内剩余气体的量。该多功能系统可设置多种不同变量，例如不同的温度条件，也可用于测定多种不同类型生物体的呼吸速率。

在本实验中，您将使用呼吸计和压力计来测量萌发种子的呼吸速率。

细胞呼吸

<h4>自养生物与异养生物</h4>

生物体需要持续的能量输入，以维持细胞和生物体的各种功能，例如生长、修复、运动、防御和繁殖。细胞只能利用化学能来驱动其各项功能，因此必须从生物分子（如糖类和脂质）的化学键中获取能量。自养生物（包括植物、藻类以及光合细菌和化能合成细菌）利用环境中的能量（例如光合作用过程中来自阳光的能量），将无机物转化为这些生物分子。异养生物无法利用无机物合成高能生物分子，因此通过摄取其他生物（主要是自养生物）产生的含碳化合物来获取能量。当需要能量时，细胞会断裂含碳化合物中的化学键，以释放其中储存的能量。从生物分子中获取能量的过程称为细胞呼吸。

细胞呼吸发生在自养生物和异养生物中，通常通过二磷酸腺苷（ADP）转化为三磷酸腺苷（ATP）使生物体获得能量。细胞呼吸主要有两种类型——有氧呼吸和无氧呼吸。有氧呼吸是一种特定类型的细胞呼吸，需要氧气（O2）来生成ATP。在此过程中，葡萄糖（C6H12O6）可在一系列酶促反应中被完全氧化，生成二氧化碳（CO2）和水（H2O）。

<h4>有氧呼吸</h4>

有氧呼吸分为三个阶段。一个称为糖酵解的过程将葡萄糖分解为两个三碳分子，称为丙酮酸。此过程释放能量，其中部分能量被转移至ATP。接下来，丙酮酸分子进入线粒体，参与一系列称为 Krebs 循环的反应，也被称为柠檬酸循环。这一过程完成葡萄糖的分解，将部分能量捕获到ATP中，并将电子转移至载体分子。在最后一个阶段，即氧化磷酸化过程中，电子通过位于线粒体内膜上的电子传递系统传递，从而维持氢离子的浓度梯度。细胞利用该质子梯度的能量，在有氧呼吸过程中生成大部分ATP。

<h4>无氧呼吸</h4>

有氧呼吸需要氧气，然而许多生物生活在氧气不易获得或环境中被其他化学物质充斥的地方。嗜极生物是一类能够生存在极端环境中的细菌，例如深海热液喷口或水下洞穴。这些生物不使用氧气进行细胞呼吸，而是利用硝酸盐或硫等无机受体，这些物质在恶劣环境中更容易获取。这一过程称为无氧呼吸。

当氧气不存在且细胞呼吸无法进行时，会进行一种特殊的无氧呼吸，称为发酵。发酵从糖酵解开始，以将葡萄糖中储存的部分能量转化为ATP。然而，由于不发生氧化磷酸化，发酵产生的ATP分子数量少于有氧呼吸。在人体中，发酵发生在缺乏线粒体的红细胞中，也发生在剧烈运动时的肌肉中，其副产物为乳酸，因此该过程被称为乳酸发酵。某些细菌可进行乳酸发酵，并被用于制作酸奶等产品。在酵母中，一种称为酒精发酵的过程会产生乙醇和二氧化碳作为副产物，人类已利用该过程来酿造饮料或使面团发酵。

<h4>光合作用</h4>

细胞呼吸作用与光合作用共同体现了能量和物质的转移过程，突显了生物与其环境以及群落中其他生物之间的相互作用。细胞呼吸作用发生在单个细胞内部，然而在生态系统尺度上，通过光合作用和细胞呼吸作用进行的氧气和二氧化碳交换会影响大气中氧气和二氧化碳的含量水平。

有趣的是，细胞呼吸和光合作用的过程彼此直接相反，其中一个反应的产物正是另一个反应的反应物。光合作用产生葡萄糖，该葡萄糖用于细胞呼吸以生成ATP。随后，该葡萄糖又被转化回CO₂2 在呼吸作用过程中，该物质作为光合作用的反应物被利用。更具体而言，光合作用利用六个CO2 和六个 H2O分子通过捕获太阳光能并释放六个O2 分子作为副产物。细胞呼吸利用六个 O2 分子将一个葡萄糖分子转化为六个 CO₂2 和六个 H2O分子，同时以ATP和热能的形式捕获能量。

<h4>测量呼吸作用</h4>

科学家可以通过测定氧气交换速率，利用呼吸计来测量细胞呼吸速率。理解理想气体定律对于了解呼吸计的工作原理至关重要。理想气体定律指出，容器中气体分子的数量可以通过气体的压强、体积和温度来确定。更具体地说，气体的体积与压强的乘积等于气体分子数、理想气体常数与气体温度的乘积。呼吸计中含有氢氧化钾，可将细胞呼吸过程中产生的二氧化碳以碳酸钾的固态形式固定下来。当细胞消耗氧气时，呼吸系统中的气体体积因没有二氧化碳补充而减少，科学家便可利用理想气体方程计算出所消耗的氧气量。

细胞呼吸是一个重要的过程，可为生物体产生可利用的能量，因此研究其在何种条件下得到增强或受到抑制不仅具有科学意义，而且十分必要。特别是线粒体，它对细胞呼吸至关重要，任何影响线粒体健康的状态都会对生物体的整体健康产生重大影响。例如，线粒体肌病是一类由线粒体损伤引起的神经肌肉疾病，主要影响需要大量能量才能正常运作的神经细胞和肌细胞1。此外，许多毒物通过抑制细胞呼吸发挥作用。例如，氰化物通过抑制氧化磷酸化过程中的ATP生成，因此了解氰化物或其他代谢毒物的作用机制，有助于对暴露于这些毒物的个体进行有效治疗2。类似地，某些药物如特定抗生素、化疗药物、他汀类药物和麻醉剂也可能干扰线粒体功能，因此可能不适用于治疗患有线粒体疾病的患者3。

<h4>参考文献</h4>

<ol class="references">
	<li>Lin, MT 和 Beal, MF. 神经退行性疾病中的线粒体功能障碍与氧化应激。Nature. 2006年，第443卷，(787-95)。</li>
	<li>Beasley, DMG 和 Glass, WI. 氰化物中毒：病理生理学及治疗建议。Occupational Medicine. 第48卷，第7期 (427-31)。</li>
	<li>Finsterer, J 和 Segall, L. 干预线粒体疾病的药物。Drug Chem Toxicol. 2010年，第33卷，第2期 (138-51)。</li>
</ol>

自养生物与异养生物

生物体需要持续输入能量，以维持细胞和有机体的各种功能，例如生长、修复、……

Education

教育

JoVE Lab Manual

生物学

Cellular Processes

细胞结构与功能

cellular energy from glucose breakdown

Cellular respiration is the process cells use to release usable energy from biomolecules such as sugars and lipids. Living things need a steady energy supply for growth, repair, movement, defense, and reproduction. Cells use that energy mainly by converting adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Autotrophs and heterotrophs get the molecules for respiration in different ways. Autotrophs, such as plants, algae, and photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria, build high-energy biomolecules from inorganic materials by using energy from the environment, such as sunlight. Heterotrophs cannot make those molecules from inorganic materials, so they obtain carbon compounds by eating other organisms, mainly autotrophs.

Aerobic respiration needs oxygen to make ATP. In this form of respiration, glucose can be fully broken down through a series of enzyme-driven reactions into carbon dioxide and water. Aerobic respiration has three stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

Glycolysis splits one glucose molecule into two three-carbon pyruvate molecules. It releases energy, and some of that energy is captured in ATP. The pyruvate then enters the mitochondria, where the Krebs cycle, also called the citric acid cycle, finishes breaking down the glucose and loads electrons onto carrier molecules.

The last stage is oxidative phosphorylation. In this step, electrons move through an electron transport system in the inner mitochondrial membrane. This helps build a hydrogen ion gradient, and cells use that gradient to make most of the ATP in aerobic respiration.

Some organisms live where oxygen is scarce or where other chemicals dominate the environment. Extremophiles, which are bacteria found in places such as deep ocean hydrothermal vents or underwater caves, may use inorganic acceptors like nitrate or sulfur instead of oxygen. This is called anaerobic respiration.

When oxygen is absent and cellular respiration cannot continue, cells can use fermentation. Fermentation begins with glycolysis and makes some ATP, but it does not include oxidative phosphorylation, so it produces fewer ATP molecules than aerobic respiration. In humans, lactic acid fermentation occurs in red blood cells, which lack mitochondria, and in muscles during strenuous activity. Some bacteria also use lactic acid fermentation, which is why they are used to make yogurt.

Yeast carry out alcoholic fermentation. This pathway produces ethanol and carbon dioxide as byproducts. People use it to ferment beverages and to help dough rise.

Cellular respiration and photosynthesis are linked processes that move energy and matter through ecosystems. They are direct opposites in many ways because the products of one are the reactants of the other. Photosynthesis uses sunlight to build one glucose molecule from six carbon dioxide and six water molecules and releases six oxygen molecules. Cellular respiration uses six oxygen molecules to break one glucose molecule into six carbon dioxide and six water molecules while capturing energy as ATP and heat.

Scientists can measure respiration rates with a respirometer by tracking oxygen exchange. This method depends on the Ideal Gas Law, which relates pressure, volume, temperature, and the number of gas molecules. Respirometers contain potassium hydroxide, which traps carbon dioxide as potassium carbonate. As cells use oxygen, gas volume in the system drops, and scientists can use the ideal gas equation to calculate oxygen use.

Cellular respiration matters for health because mitochondria are essential to the process. Mitochondrial myopathies are neuromuscular diseases caused by mitochondrial damage, and they mainly affect nerve and muscle cells that need a lot of energy. Many poisons also block respiration. Cyanide, for example, inhibits ATP production through oxidative phosphorylation, and some antibiotics, chemotherapeutics, statins, and anesthetics can also interfere with mitochondrial function.

Cellular Energy From Glucose Breakdown

photosynthesis

Photosynthesis: Light, Sugars, and Carbon

Photosynthesis turns sunlight into chemical energy in the form of glucose. This process powers most life on Earth by helping autotrophs, or primary producers, make food. The glucose they make can provide quick energy or be stored as starch for later use. Consumers depend on these producers for energy. Photosynthesis happens in many kinds of organisms. Cyanobacteria, some protists such as algae, and plants can all carry out this process. In eukaryotic cells, it takes place in the chloroplast.

cellular respiration

Cellular respiration is the process cells use to release usable energy from biomolecules such as sugars and lipids. Living things need a steady energy supply for growth, repair, movement, defense, and reproduction. Cells use that energy mainly by converting adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Autotrophs and heterotrophs get the molecules for respiration in different ways. Autotrophs, such as plants, algae, and photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria, build...

cell division

Cell Cycle, Mitosis, and Meiosis

Cell division is essential for growth, repair, and reproduction in living organisms. It lets single-celled organisms create a new organism and helps multicellular organisms make new cells for development and for replacing damaged cells. In multicellular species, cell division also makes reproductive cells needed for reproduction. Before a cell divides, it must copy its genetic material and split it into two daughter cells. This process is called the cell cycle. Although the timing can vary...

transpiration

Water Movement in Plants

Water movement in plants depends on transpiration and the vascular system. Plants must move water and dissolved nutrients from the roots to the leaves. They also exchange materials with the environment as part of normal life processes. Vascular plants use bundles of tissues that run from the roots to the tips of the plant. Root hairs absorb water and nutrients, and osmosis moves water into the xylem, the main water-conducting tissue. Water then travels to the tallest parts of the plant and...

enzyme activity

Factors That Shape Enzyme Function

Enzymes are biological catalysts that help living things run biochemical reactions faster. They lower activation energy, which is the energy needed to start a reaction. Enzymes are not used up in the process, so they can keep working again and again. Most enzymes are proteins, although some ribonucleic acid molecules also have catalytic activity. Each enzyme usually binds only one or a few specific substrates. This selectivity depends on the enzyme’s active site, which fits its substrate like...

cellular processes

Learn how cells turn glucose into ATP through aerobic and anaerobic respiration, fermentation, photosynthesis links, and respirometer measurements.

Cellular Energy From Glucose Breakdown | JoVE K12

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High School

Environmental Science

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Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy And Dynamics

HS-LS2-4

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Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

Cells

Cellular processes

Tennessee Academic Standards

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

BIO1.LS1.9

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HIgh School

BIO.2

BIO.2.e

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New Jersey Student Learning Standards for Science

Life Science

HS-LS1-7

Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics

HS-LS2-5

Arizona Science Standards

HS.L2

HS.L2U1.21

Next Generation Science Standards

HS-LS2-3

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.L.18

SC.912.L.18.9

south-carolina-college-and-career-ready-science-standards

South Carolina College and Career Ready Science Standards

B-LS1-7.

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New York State Science Learning Standards

matter-and-energy-in-organisms-and-ecosystems

Matter and Energy in Organisms and Ecosystems

HS-LS1-7.

Georgia Standards of Excellence

Botany

SBO1.

Respiration

通过这段 3 分钟的教师指南，准备教授 细胞呼吸。涵盖 JoVE Lab Manual 上 Biology 实验的关键准备步骤。

Biology 中的 细胞呼吸 教师准备 - 5.2K+ 观看次数 | JoVE Lab Manual

在这段 6 分钟的学生实验流程视频中，逐步学习 细胞呼吸 的操作步骤。属于 JoVE Lab Manual 上的 Biology 系列。

Biology 中的 细胞呼吸 学生实验流程 - 17K+ 观看次数 | JoVE Lab Manual

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The intermediate filaments are one of three widely studied cytoskeletal filaments. They are so named as their diameter (10 nm) is in between that of ...

Types of Intermediate Filaments

The intermediate filaments are an essential component of the cytoskeleton. Presently six types of intermediate filament have been identified. Type I and ...

Gap Junctions

Multicellular organisms employ a variety of ways for cells to communicate with each other. Gap junctions are specialized proteins that form pores between ...

The Extracellular Matrix

In order to maintain tissue organization, many animal cells are surrounded by structural molecules that make up the extracellular matrix (ECM). Together, ...

Tissues

Cells with similar structure and function are grouped into tissues. A group of tissues with a specialized function is called an organ. There are four main ...

Plant Cell Wall

The plant cell wall gives plant cells shape, support, and protection. As a cell matures, its cell wall specializes according to the cell type. For ...

Plasmodesmata

The organs in a multicellular organism&#x2019;s body are made up of tissues formed by cells. To work together cohesively, cells must communicate. One way ...

Use models to explain how the structure of organelles determines its function and supports overall cell processes.

LS.Bio.1.3

Cells are the smallest and basic units of life, whether it is a single cell that forms the entire organism, e.g., in a bacterium, or trillions of them, ...

the-tree-of-life-bacteria-archaea-and-eukaryotes

The Tree of Life - Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes are small unicellular organisms that include the domains &#8212; Archaea and Bacteria. Bacteria include many common microorganisms, such as ...

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells represent two fundamental types of cellular organization, differing significantly in structure, complexity, and function. ...

Construct explanations to compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells in terms of structures and degree of complexity.

LS.Bio.1.4

Analyze how the relationship between structure and function supports life processes within organisms.

Cellular Energy From Glucose Breakdown

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