Name: primary, rechargeable batteries and fuel cells
Uploaded: 2020-09-24T15:06:52.000Z
Duration: 3 min 12 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

9-12

Physical Science

Forces and Interactions

3.2.9-12.M

Batteries and Fuel Cells

电池是用作便携式电源的伏打电池。它们可分为原电池或非充电电池 以及二次电池或可充电电池。干电池是常见的一次电池。它包含一个锌壳作为阳极，和一个浸在四价氧化锰和氯化铵的 潮湿酸性电解液糊中的石墨阴极。锌氧化为氯化锌，四价氧化锰还原为固态三价氧化锰，产生 1.5 伏的电势。使用后，电极会耗尽，使干电池成为一次性电池。碱性电池与之类似，但使用碱性电解液，延长了电池的保质期和使用寿命。铅酸电池是主要 用于汽车的二次电池。这些电池通常有六个串联连接的电化学电池，产生的总电势为 12 伏。每个电池都有一个铅阳极和 一个浸在硫酸中的氧化铅阴极。放电过程中，氧化还原反应会 在两个电极上沉积固态硫酸铅，充电过程中，使用外部电源 将固态硫酸铅转换回来。镍镉充电电池包括 氢氧化镍阴极、镉阳极和 氢氧化钾电解液。工作时，阳极氧化为固态氢氧化镉，阴极还原为固态氢氧化镍，产生 1.3 伏的电池电位。但是，镉的毒性促使 镍镉电池被环保型镍氢电池 取代。这里，阴极保持不变，但阳极是贮氢合金。阳极反应是由氢 生成水。锂离子电池是最新的二次电池。轻质锂金属使这些电池具有高能量密度，便于携带。锂离子电池包含一个锂化石墨阳极和 一个锂过渡金属氧化物阴极。充电时，过渡金属 被氧化，而锂离子则 结合在阳极石墨层之间。放电时，锂离子 从阳极流向阴极，产生 3.7 伏的电势。最后，燃料电池是伏打电池，需要外部连续供应氧化还原反应物 来产生能量。典型的氢燃料电池利用空气中的氢和氧产生电流，同时排出水。石墨电极包含铂基催化剂，用来加速氧化还原反应。

电池和燃料电池

电池是原电池（伽凡尼电池），用作特定应用的电源。 现代电池有多种形式，可用于各种应用，从微型按钮电池 (例如为腕表供电的电池) 到用于向城市电网提供备用能量的超大电池。 某些电池专为一次性使用而设计，不能充电 (主电池) ，而另一些电池则基于方便可反转的电池反应，允许外部电源 (次电池) 充电。 
 一次性 (主) 电池 
 干电池是一种常见的主电池，它使用锌作为容器和阳极 (“–”端子) ，使用石墨杆作为阴极 (“ + ”端子)。 锌罐中装有一种电解质糊，其中含有氧化锰，氯化锌，氯化铵和水。 一根石墨杆浸入电解质糊中以完成电池。 自发电池反应包括： 
 <img alt="Eq1" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_1.png" style="text-align: center; height: 168px;" />
 干电池的电压 (电池电势) 约为 1.5 V (Ecell ~ 1.5 V)。 干电池提供各种尺寸 (例如 D ， C ， AA ， AAA)。 所有尺寸的干电池都包含相同的组件并具有相同的电压，但较大的电池包含较大数量的氧化还原反应物，因此能够相应地转移较大的电荷。 与其他原电池（伽凡尼电池）一样，如果需要，干电池可以串联连接至具有更大电压输出的产率电池。  
 碱性电池的设计与干电池相同。 顾名思义，这些类型的电池使用碱性电解质，通常是氢氧化钾。 反应是 
 <img alt="Eq2" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_2.png" style="text-align: center; height: 130px;" />
 碱性电池的能量容量可达干电池类似尺寸 (Ecell =+1.43 V) 的三到五倍。 碱性电池容易泄漏氢氧化钾，因此应将其从设备中取出，以便长期存放。 虽然一些碱性电池可以充电，但大多数电池不能充电。 
 可充电 (辅助) 电池 
 镍镉或镍镉电池由镀镍阴极，镀镉阳极和氢氧化钾电极组成。 正极和负极板由分离器防止短路，它们一起滚动并放入壳体中。 这种设计使镍镉电池提供的电流比类似尺寸的碱性电池大得多。 反应是 
 <img alt="Eq3" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_3.png" style="text-align: center; height: 130px;" />
 正确处理后，镍镉电池可充电约 1000 次 (电池 ~ 1.3 V)。 镉是一种有毒重金属，因此镍镉电池绝不应破裂或焚烧，应按照相关的有毒废物准则进行处置。 
 锂离子电池是最流行的充电电池之一，用于许多便携式电子设备。 反应是 
 <img alt="Eq4" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_4.png" style="text-align: center; height: 130px;" />
 电池反应的可变化学光度测量会导致电池电压发生变化，但在典型情况下， x 通常不超过 0.5 ，电池电压约为 3.7 V (E 电池 ~ 3.7)。 锂电池很受欢迎，因为它们可以提供较大的数量电流，比其他类型的同类电池更轻，在放电时会产生几乎恒定的电压，并且只会在存储时慢慢失去电荷。 
 铅酸蓄电池也是汽车中常用的二级蓄电池。 它价格低廉，能够产生汽车起动电动机所需的高电流。 铅酸蓄电池的反应是 
 <img alt="Eq5" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_5.png" style="text-align: center; height: 160px;" />
 每个电池产生 2 V (Ecell ~ 2 V) ，因此六个电池串联以产生一个 12 V 汽车蓄电池。 铅酸电池很重，含有腐蚀性液体电解质 H2SO4 (AQ) ，但由于其高电流密度，通常仍是首选电池。 由于这些电池含有大量的铅数量，因此必须始终正确处置。 
 燃料电池 
 燃料电池是一种原电池（伽凡尼电池），它使用传统的可燃物燃料，最常见的是氢气或甲烷，这些燃料与氧化物一起持续供给电池。 在电池中，燃料和氧化物的氧化还原化学与燃烧时的化学性质相同，但通过催化的电子化学，其效率显著提高。 例如，典型的氢燃料电池使用嵌入铂基催化剂的石墨电极加速两种半电池反应： 
 <img alt="Eq6" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_6.png" style="text-align: center; height: 130px;" />
 这些类型的燃料电池通常产生约 1.23 V (电池 ~ 1.23 V) 的电压。 与内燃机相比，使用相同氧化还原反应的燃料电池的能量效率通常要高出一倍多 (发动机为~20% – 25% ，燃料电池为 ~50% – 75%)。 氢燃料电池通常用于扩展空间飞行任务，并开发了个人车辆的原型。 
 本文改编自 <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/17-5-batteries-and-fuel-cells"> Openstax ， 化学 2e ，第 17.5 节：电池和燃料电池。 </a>

电池是一种用作特定应用电源的伽伐尼电池。现代电池以多种形式存在，以……

Education

教育

JoVE Core

Chemistry

化学

Electrochemistry

电化学

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

关键术语与概念

primary, rechargeable batteries and fuel cells

Batteries and fuel cells are galvanic cells that supply electrical power for many applications. They range from tiny button batteries in wristwatches to large systems that can provide backup energy to municipal power grids. Some are primary cells, which are single-use and cannot be recharged. Others are secondary cells, which use reversible reactions and can be charged again by an external power source.

A common primary battery is the dry cell. It uses zinc as both the container and the anode, or negative terminal, and a graphite rod as the cathode, or positive terminal. The zinc can holds an electrolyte paste with manganese(IV) oxide, zinc(II) chloride, ammonium chloride, and water. A dry cell has a voltage of about 1.5 V. It comes in sizes such as D, C, AA, and AAA. These sizes use the same parts and the same voltage, but larger cells contain more reactants and can transfer more charge. Dry cells can also be connected in series to increase voltage.

Alkaline batteries use the same redox couples as dry cells, but they use an alkaline electrolyte, often potassium hydroxide. They can deliver about three to five times the energy of a dry cell of similar size and have a cell potential of about 1.43 V. These batteries can leak potassium hydroxide, so they should be removed from devices during long-term storage. Some alkaline batteries are rechargeable, but most are not.

Rechargeable batteries include nickel-cadmium, or NiCd, batteries, lithium-ion batteries, and lead-acid batteries. A NiCd battery has a nickel-plated cathode, a cadmium-plated anode, and a potassium hydroxide electrode. The positive and negative plates are rolled together with a separator to keep them from shorting. This design lets a NiCd cell deliver much more current than a similar-sized alkaline battery. When treated properly, it can be recharged about 1000 times, and its cell potential is about 1.3 V. Cadmium is toxic, so NiCd batteries should not be ruptured or burned and must be disposed of as toxic waste.

Lithium-ion batteries are widely used in portable electronic devices. Their reaction has variable stoichiometry, so the voltage can vary, but under typical conditions the cell potential is about 3.7 V. These batteries are popular because they can provide a large amount of current, are lighter than comparable batteries of other types, and keep a nearly constant voltage as they discharge. They also lose charge slowly during storage. Lead-acid batteries are common in automobiles. They are inexpensive and can deliver the high current needed by starter motors. Each cell produces 2 V, so six cells are connected in series to make a 12-V car battery. These batteries are heavy and contain a caustic sulfuric acid electrolyte, and they also contain a significant amount of lead, so they must be disposed of properly.

A fuel cell is also a galvanic cell, but it uses a fuel that is continuously fed into the cell along with an oxidant. The fuel is often hydrogen or methane. Inside the cell, the same redox chemistry that occurs in combustion is carried out by a catalyzed electrochemical process that is much more efficient. A typical hydrogen fuel cell uses graphite electrodes with platinum-based catalysts to speed the half-cell reactions. These fuel cells usually produce about 1.23 V. Compared with an internal combustion engine, a fuel cell using the same redox reaction is typically more than twice as efficient. Hydrogen fuel cells are used on extended space missions, and prototypes for personal vehicles have been developed.

Primary, Rechargeable Batteries and Fuel Cells

primary-rechargeable-batteries-and-fuel-cells

balancing redox equations

Redox Reactions and Half-Reaction Balancing

Redox reactions involve electron transfer and changes in oxidation number. In electrochemistry, these reactions connect chemical changes with electrical energy. They also power technologies such as industrial metal processing and rechargeable batteries used in electric vehicles. Oxidation number is a way to track how an atom's electronic environment changes compared with the pure element, where the oxidation number is zero. For a simple ionic compound, the oxidation number matches the ion...

electromotive force

Cell Voltage and Electron Flow

Electric current is the flow of electric charge through a conducting medium or a solution. In wires, that charge is carried by electrons. In some solutions, ions can also move and carry charge. When electrons move through a wire, they produce an electric current. This idea connects to redox reactions, where electrons are lost and gained. In the spontaneous reaction between zinc and copper ions, zinc is oxidized to zinc ions. Copper ions are reduced to solid copper. Even so, this direct...

voltaic/galvanic cells

Galvanic Cells and Battery Reactions

Galvanic cells use spontaneous redox reactions to produce electric current. A common example is a disposable AA battery, which powers devices by turning chemical energy into electrical energy. Another example is a copper wire placed in silver nitrate solution, where the solution slowly turns bright blue and a grey solid forms on the wire. In the copper and silver reaction, copper is oxidized and silver ions are reduced. Copper forms cuprous ions, which give the solution its blue color. At the...

standard electrode potentials

Using Electrode Potentials to Predict Reactions

Electrode potentials help predict whether a redox reaction will happen on its own. A redox reaction involves electron transfer. In electrochemistry, the measured value is called cell potential or cell voltage. It shows the energy linked to charge transfer and is measured in volts, where 1 volt equals 1 joule per coulomb. A single half-cell cannot be measured by itself because electron transfer needs both a donor and a receiver. For that reason, scientists measure the difference between two...

cell potential and free energy

Redox Cell Potential, ΔG°, and K

Redox cell potential connects chemical energy, free energy change, and the equilibrium constant in an electrochemical cell. In these reactions, chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. That link helps predict whether a reaction is spontaneous and how far it may proceed. Thermodynamics is the study of how heat and other forms of energy are related. In an electrochemical cell, cell potential can also reflect oxidizing strength or reducing strength. A similar idea appears in acid-base...

the nernst equation

Cell Potential Under Changing Conditions

Cell potential changes when a redox reaction does not run at standard conditions. Standard cell potentials connect with standard free energy change, ΔG°, and the equilibrium constant K, but those relationships only hold at 1 M concentration, 298 K, and 1 atmosphere. A zinc(II) and tin(II) redox cell with E°cell = +0.291 V and ΔG° = −56.2 kJ is spontaneous under those standard conditions. As a cell discharges, the reactant concentration changes and the cell potential steadily drops. Many redox...

concentration cells

Cell Potential from Concentration Differences

Concentration cells are voltaic cells that use two almost identical half-cells. The half-cells use the same electrode and the same half-reaction. They differ only in the concentration of one redox species, so the cell potential depends on that concentration difference. In a concentration cell, the Nernst equation can be used to find the cell potential. For the zinc example shown, the calculated cell potential is positive. A positive cell potential means the overall reaction is spontaneous. <br...

batteries and fuel cells

Batteries and fuel cells are galvanic cells that supply electrical power for many applications. They range from tiny button batteries in wristwatches to large systems that can provide backup energy to municipal power grids. Some are primary cells, which are single-use and cannot be recharged. Others are secondary cells, which use reversible reactions and can be charged again by an external power source. A common primary battery is the dry cell. It uses zinc as both the container and the anode,...

corrosion

Rusting and Metal Protection

Corrosion is the natural breakdown of metals through electrochemical reactions. It can appear as rust on iron, tarnish on silver, or a blue-green patina on copper. In each case, the metal is oxidized. Some corrosion products can protect the surface, while others keep damaging the metal. Rusting is the harmful type of corrosion seen in iron. It happens when iron is exposed to oxygen and water. A galvanic cell forms on the iron surface, and this drives oxidation at the anodic region and...

electrolysis

Electrolysis in Batteries and Metal Production

Electrolysis uses electrical energy to drive a nonspontaneous redox reaction. In a galvanic cell, a spontaneous redox reaction does electrical work on the surroundings by sending electrons through an external circuit. In electrolysis, an external circuit does work on the redox system by applying a voltage large enough to force the reaction in the opposite direction. This process is used in several real-world settings. Recharging a battery is one example, because an outside power source drives...

key terms and concepts

Explore dry cells, alkaline batteries, NiCd, lithium-ion, and lead-acid batteries, plus how hydrogen fuel cells turn fuel into electricity more efficiently.

Primary, Rechargeable Batteries and Fuel Cells | JoVE K12

chemistry

JoVE Core 化学通过简单明了且通俗易懂的动画视频课程，将普通化学概念带入到现实生活当中。此外，在科学家行动视频中，我们演示了在实验室中进行的经典和原始研究实验。

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

motion-and-stability-forces-and-interactions

Motion And Stability: Forces And Interactions

HS-PS2-5

Physics

Arizona Science Standards

HS.P1

HS.P1U3.4

HS+Phy.P4

HS+Phy.P4U2.7

HS.P4

HS.P4U3.9

Alabama Course of Study Science

Matter and Its Interactions

9-12.PS.3.4

Next Generation Science Standards

Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

PHYS.6

PHYS.6.D

south-carolina-college-and-career-ready-science-standards

South Carolina College and Career Ready Science Standards

Energy

P-PS3-3

Newton's Second Law

Newton&#39;s second law is closely related to his first law of motion. It mathematically gives the cause-and-effect relationship between force and changes ...

Second Law: Motion under Same Force

Newton&#39;s laws can be applied to bodies at rest and bodies in motion. Newton&#39;s first law is applied to bodies in equilibrium, whereas the second ...

second-law-motion-under-same-acceleration

Second Law: Motion under Same Acceleration

Newton&#39;s second law of motion applies to bodies moving under the same acceleration. For example, when a baggage tractor pulls luggage carts, each cart ...

Students who demonstrate understanding can analyze data to support the claim that Newton's second law of motion describes the mathematical relationship among the net force on a macroscopic object, its mass, and its acceleration.  Clarifying Statement: Examples of data could include tables or graphs of position or velocity as a function of time for objects subject to a net unbalanced force, such as a falling object, an object sliding down a ramp, or a moving object being pulled by a constant force.  Assessment Boundry: Assessment is limited to one-dimensional motion and to macroscopic objects moving at non-relativistic speeds.

3.2.9-12.I

Inertial Frames of Reference

Newton&#8217;s first law is usually considered to be a statement about reference frames. It provides a method for identifying a special type of reference ...

Non-inertial Frames of Reference

A reference frame accelerating or decelerating relative to an inertial frame is a non-inertial frame. To help understand this, consider what taking off in ...

Linear Momentum

The term momentum is used in various ways in everyday language, most of which are consistent with the precise scientific definition. Generally, momentum ...

Conservation of Momentum: Introduction

The total momentum of a system consisting of N interacting objects is constant in time or is conserved. A system must meet two requirements for its ...

Conservation of Momentum: Problem Solving

Solving problems using the conservation of momentum requires four basic steps:

	Identify a closed system, where the total mass is constant, and no net ...

Students who demonstrate understanding can use mathematical representations to support the claim that the total momentum of a system of objects is conserved when there is no net force on the system.  Clarifying Statement: Emphasis is on the quantitative conservation of momentum in interactions and the qualitative meaning of this principle.  Assessment Boundry: Assessment is limited to systems of two macroscopic bodies moving in one dimension.

3.2.9-12.J

Students who demonstrate understanding can apply scientific and engineering ideas to design, evaluate and refine a device that minimizes the force on a macroscopic object during a collision. Clarifying Statement: Examples of evaluation and refinement could include determining the success of the device at protecting an object from damage and modifying the design to improve it. Examples of a device could include a football helmet or a parachute. Assessment Boundry: Assessment is limited to qualitative evaluations and/or algebraic manipulations.

3.2.9-12.K

Gravitation

In the years before Newton, a general belief prevailed that different laws governed objects in the sky than objects on Earth. When Kepler wrote down the ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14716.jpg

Newton's Law of Gravitation

Our everyday observation tells us that all objects close to the Earth naturally tend to fall to the ground. Early philosophers assumed that this downward ...

Electric Charges

From lightning during thunderstorms to electronic devices, the phenomenon of electromagnetism is all around us. The electromagnetic force is one of the ...

sources-and-properties-of-electric-charge

Sources and Properties of Electric Charge

All objects we see around us consist of atoms, which combine to form molecules. The lightest element in the universe is hydrogen, and a hydrogen atom ...

Coulomb's Law

Experiments with electric charges have shown that if two objects each have an electric charge, they exert an electric force on each other. The magnitude ...

the-principle-of-superposition-and-the-gravitational-field

The Principle of Superposition and the Gravitational Field

The principle of superposition applies to gravitational forces of objects that are sufficiently far apart. It states that the net gravitational force on a ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14754.jpg

Electric Field

Consider two point charges, each exerting Coulomb force on the other. It is possible to describe the Coulomb interaction via an intermediate step by ...

Magnetic Fields

A moving charge or a current creates a magnetic field in the surrounding space, in addition to its electric field. The magnetic field exerts a force on ...

Magnetic Field due to Moving Charges

A stationary charge creates and interacts with the electric field, while a moving charge creates a magnetic field.
Consider a point charge moving with a ...

Electromagnetic Fields

Electric fields generated by static charges, often referred to as electrostatic fields, are characteristically different from electric fields created by ...

Students who demonstrate understanding can use mathematical representations of Newton's Law of Gravitation and Coulomb's Law to describe and predict the gravitational and electrostatic forces between objects. Clarifying Statement: Emphasis is on both quantitative and conceptual descriptions of gravitational and electric fields. Assessment Boundry: Assessment is limited to systems with two objects.

3.2.9-12.L

Energy Transfer in Chemical Reactions

Chemical reactions require sufficient energy to cause the matter to collide with enough precision and force that old chemical bonds can be broken and new ...

A battery is a galvanic cell that is used as a source of electrical power for specific applications. Modern batteries exist in a multitude of forms to ...

Students who demonstrate understanding can plan and conduct an investigation to provide evidence that an electric current can produce a magnetic field and that a changing magnetic field can produce an electric current. Clarifying Statement: N/A Assessment Boundry: Assessment is limited to designing and conducting investigations with provided materials and tools.

Primary, Rechargeable Batteries and Fuel Cells

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