Name: how insulin and glucagon shift energy
Uploaded: 2024-03-28T14:28:49.000Z
Duration: 1 min 16 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

9-12

Human Anatomy and Physiology

Integration And Coordination

Endocrine System

Hormones Regulating Blood Glucose

胰高血糖素和胰岛素是调节血糖水平的胰腺激素。
在餐间或禁食期间，血糖水平下降，会触发胰腺α细胞释放胰高血糖素。
胰高血糖素的主要功能是促进葡萄糖的合成和释放，从而增加血糖浓度。
在肝脏和骨骼肌中，胰高血糖素可促进糖原分解，将糖原转化为葡萄糖。
它还通过糖异生作用促进含碳化合物（如乳酸和氨基酸）转化为葡萄糖。&#160;
餐后，血糖水平迅速升高，从而刺激胰腺β细胞释放胰岛素。
胰岛素与其靶细胞膜上的受体结合，促进葡萄糖的摄取和代谢。
葡萄糖进入细胞后，胰岛素进一步促进糖酵解，加快葡萄糖分解和ATP生成的速率。
它还能促进蛋白质合成、糖原合成以及葡萄糖向脂肪的转化，以防止血糖水平过高。

调节血糖的荷尔蒙

当血糖值高时，胰脏中的β细胞会释放胰岛素。它促进了质膜上具有胰岛素受体的胰岛素依赖性细胞对葡萄糖的吸收和利用。胰岛素通过增加细胞膜中葡萄糖转运蛋白的数量来促进葡萄糖的摄取，并使葡萄糖进入到细胞中。最终，葡萄糖的利用和ATP的产生效率将会增强。

除了加速葡萄糖的摄取和利用外，胰岛素还具有其他的作用。它能够刺激骨骼肌纤维和肝细胞中肝糖（一种葡萄糖储存多糖）的形成，以便在日后使用。胰岛素也促进了所有目标细胞中胺基酸的吸收和蛋白质的合成，从而防止胺基酸转化为葡萄糖。此外，胰岛素能够刺激脂肪细胞中三酸甘油酯的形成，并促进脂肪酸和甘油的吸收。

然而，值得注意的是，并非体内所有的细胞都依赖于胰岛素。在大脑、肾脏、消化道内壁和红血球中的细胞都缺乏胰岛素受体，但它们仍然可以独立于胰岛素来刺激吸收和使用葡萄糖。

当血糖值低于正常值时，胰脏会从α细胞中释放胰高血糖素来使用储备的能量。胰高血糖素与其目标细胞质膜上的受体进行结合，使腺苷酸环化酶活化并产生cAMP作为其第二信使。胰高血糖素的主要作用包括刺激骨骼肌纤维和肝细胞中肝糖的分解，并通过释放葡萄糖分子进行能量代谢或进入到血液中。胰高血糖素也刺激着脂肪细胞中三酸甘油酯的分解，并释放脂肪酸供其他组织进行使用。此外，它还通过糖质来刺激肝细胞产生和释放葡萄糖，从而会使其血糖浓度增加。

升糖素和胰岛素的分泌分别由胰脏中的α细胞和β细胞来进行调节，以此来控制血糖水平的变化。

胰高血糖素和胰岛素是调节血糖水平的胰腺激素。  
餐间或禁食期间，血糖水平下降，从而触发……

Education

教育

JoVE Core

Anatomy and Physiology

解剖学与生理学

Unit 1

第 1 单元

The Endocrine System

内分泌系统

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

关键术语与概念

how insulin and glucagon shift energy

Insulin and glucagon are pancreatic hormones that help keep blood glucose levels in balance. Insulin is released by beta cells when blood glucose is high. Glucagon is released by alpha cells when blood glucose drops below normal.

Insulin helps glucose move into insulin-dependent cells that have insulin receptors on their plasma membranes. It increases the number of glucose transport proteins in the cell membrane, which allows glucose to enter the cell more easily. This raises glucose use and ATP production, the cell’s energy supply.

Insulin also supports storage and building processes. It stimulates glycogen formation in skeletal muscle fibers and liver cells so glucose can be saved for later. It promotes amino acid absorption and protein synthesis in target cells, which helps prevent amino acids from being converted into glucose. It also encourages triglyceride formation in adipocytes and helps fatty acids and glycerol be absorbed.

Not every cell depends on insulin to use glucose. Cells in the brain, kidneys, lining of the digestive tract, and red blood cells do not have insulin receptors, but they can still absorb and use glucose without insulin stimulation.

When blood glucose is low, glucagon helps release stored energy. It binds to its receptor on the target cell’s plasma membrane and activates adenylate cyclase, which produces cAMP as a second messenger. Glucagon stimulates glycogen breakdown in skeletal muscle fibers and liver cells, which releases glucose for energy use or into the bloodstream. It also promotes triglyceride breakdown in adipocytes and triggers gluconeogenesis in liver cells, increasing blood glucose concentration.

How Insulin and Glucagon Shift Energy

an overview of the endocrine system

How Hormones Coordinate Body Functions

The endocrine system uses hormones to coordinate body functions. It is a network of glands that releases chemical messengers into the body. These hormones carry signals between secretory cells and distant target cells. A hormone only affects cells that have the right receptor for it. The endocrine system helps maintain homeostasis, or a stable internal balance. It works with the nervous system to regulate metabolism, reproduction, and development. Both systems support intercellular...

structures of the endocrine system

Endocrine Glands and Hormone Sources

The endocrine system is made of glands, tissues, and organs spread across the body. These parts work together to release hormones, which are chemical signals that help control body functions. Endocrine glands are ductless glands, so they release hormones directly into the interstitial fluid, the fluid around cells. The hypothalamus is a key neuroendocrine organ in the brain. It links the nervous system and endocrine system and helps regulate hormones. Near it are the pituitary gland and pineal...

chemical signaling in the endocrine system

chemical-signaling-in-the-endocrine-system

Hormone Receptors and Cell Responses

Hormones control cell activity by binding to receptors and starting a signaling cascade. A signaling cascade is a chain of events that carries information within or between cells and ends with a specific response in the target cell. In the endocrine system, hormone action depends on whether the hormone is lipid-soluble or water-soluble. Lipid-soluble hormones, such as steroid hormones, act inside the cell. Because they are lipid-based, they can pass through cell membranes. They then bind to...

types of hormones

Hormone Structure and Function

Hormones can be grouped by their structure and how they act in the body. The main groups are steroids, eicosanoids, amino acid-based derivatives, and peptide hormones. These categories help explain why some hormones travel easily through cell membranes while others act in more local ways. Steroids and eicosanoids are lipid-soluble hormones, which means they dissolve in fats. Steroids come from cholesterol and have four linked carbon rings with different side chains. Examples include estradiol...

secondary messengers in hormone action

Hormone Signaling Through cAMP and Calcium

Water-soluble hormones signal through cell receptors and second messengers. Because these hormones cannot cross the plasma membrane, they bind to protein receptors that span the membrane and start signaling inside the cell. The response often depends on small messenger molecules such as cAMP or calcium ions. Many of these hormones use G protein-coupled receptors, or GPCRs. These membrane receptors connect to regulatory G proteins, which then activate enzymes such as adenylyl cyclase or...

target cell response to hormones

Hormone Receptors and Cell Response

Hormones trigger cell responses by binding to receptors on the cell surface or inside the target cell. This binding starts a chain of events that changes how the cell behaves. The response depends on the hormone, the receptor, and the type of target cell. Cells can also change how strongly they respond by adjusting receptor numbers. When a cell is exposed to high hormone levels for a long time, it may down-regulate receptors. Down-regulation means the cell makes fewer receptors for that...

regulation of hormone secretion

How Hormones Stay in Balance

Hormone secretion stays in balance through neural, humoral, and hormonal signals. These signals tell endocrine glands when to release hormones. Together, they help the body respond to changing conditions. Neural stimuli begin with environmental cues that trigger action potentials in nerve fibers. These nerve signals travel to their targets and can quickly start hormone release. A clear example is stress, when the sympathetic nervous system causes the adrenal glands to release epinephrine. This...

the pituitary gland

Pituitary Lobe Structure and Hormone Links

The pituitary gland is a small endocrine organ in the sphenoid bone, just under the hypothalamus. In adults, it has two main regions: the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe. During fetal development, a third region called the pars intermedia forms, but it atrophies and disappears. Some of its cells remain and are found next to the anterior pituitary in adults. The anterior lobe includes the pars distalis and the pars tuberalis. These regions are made of glandular epithelial tissue, which...

hormones of the pituitary gland

Pituitary Hormones and Their Body Roles

The pituitary gland is a small, pea-sized gland at the base of the brain. It helps regulate body functions such as growth and reproduction. The gland has two lobes, the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe. In the anterior lobe, secretory cell clusters in the pars distalis are controlled by hypothalamic regulators and produce six main hormones. Growth hormone is the most abundant hormone released from the anterior lobe. It supports overall growth by helping the body produce insulin-like growth...

the thyroid gland

Thyroid Follicles, Cells, and Hormones

The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland in the neck. It lies over the front surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes joined by a thin band of tissue called the isthmus. Inside each lobe are many small, round thyroid follicles. These follicles are surrounded by a network of blood vessels. Each follicle has a central cavity lined by simple cuboidal to squamous epithelial cells called follicular cells. Follicular cells make the glycoprotein thyroglobulin and store it...

synthesis and regulation of thyroid hormones

synthesis-and-regulation-of-thyroid-hormones

How T3 and T4 Are Made and Controlled

Thyroid hormones T3 and T4 are made through a step-by-step process in the thyroid gland. Their release is also controlled by a feedback loop that helps keep hormone levels balanced in the body. When blood levels of T3 and T4 drop, the hypothalamus responds by releasing thyrotropin-releasing hormone, or TRH. TRH travels to the pituitary gland and stimulates it to release thyroid-stimulating hormone, or TSH, into the bloodstream. TSH then acts on the thyroid gland. It stimulates the follicular...

functions of thyroid hormones

Thyroid Hormones in Growth and Metabolism

Thyroid hormones help control growth, metabolism, and body balance. They are essential during fetal life and childhood, when the skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems are developing and maturing. They also support bone mineral turnover and protein synthesis in growing tissues. In adulthood, thyroid hormones continue to affect the body in important ways. They help regulate gonadal hormone secretion, especially in females, and support endocrine tissue function. They also contribute to normal...

synthesis and functions of calcitonin

Calcitonin and Blood Calcium Control

Calcitonin is a polypeptide hormone that helps control calcium levels in body fluids. It is released by parafollicular cells, also called C cells, in the follicular epithelium of the thyroid gland. Calcitonin responds to changes in blood calcium levels. It is also influenced by gastrointestinal hormones such as gastrin and cholecystokinin. The exact mechanism of calcitonin in calcium homeostasis is still not fully clear. Even so, its role is important in several body processes. In childhood,...

the parathyroid glands

Parathyroid Hormone and Calcium Control

The parathyroid glands help control calcium balance in the body. These two pairs of glands sit on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland and are enclosed by a dense capsule. They contain two main cell types: principal cells and oxyphil cells. Principal parathyroid cells make parathyroid hormone, or PTH, also called parathormone. These cells sense when blood calcium levels fall. When calcium drops, they release PTH to start a response that helps restore calcium balance. PTH acts on bones,...

anatomy of the adrenal glands

Adrenal Glands and the Stress Response

The adrenal glands help the body respond to stress. These paired, pyramid-shaped glands sit above the kidneys and line up with the twelfth rib. They also have a yellow tint because they store cholesterol and fatty acids needed to make hormones. Each gland is wrapped in a fibrous capsule and cushioned by fat. Inside, the gland has two main regions with different jobs. The outer adrenal cortex makes corticosteroids, which support longer-lasting stress responses. The cortex is organized into...

hormones of the adrenal glands

Adrenal Cortex and Stress Hormones

Adrenal hormones help control electrolyte balance and the body’s stress response. They come from the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla, which work together to support survival and normal body function. The adrenal cortex makes over two dozen corticosteroid hormones. In the zona glomerulosa, the main mineralocorticoid is aldosterone. Mineralocorticoids help control the electrolyte makeup of body fluids. The zona fasciculata produces glucocorticoids such as cortisol and corticosterone.

adrenal gland disorders

Hormone Imbalances in the Adrenal Glands

Hormone imbalances in the adrenal glands can cause too little or too much hormone production. The adrenal glands make hormones that help control stress, blood pressure, and body balance. When these levels move away from normal, several adrenal disorders can develop. Adrenal insufficiency happens when the adrenal cortex makes too little cortisol and aldosterone. A common example is Addison’s disease. It can cause skin bronzing, dehydration, low blood pressure, fatigue, and weight loss.

the pineal gland

Melatonin and the Pineal Gland

The pineal gland is a small endocrine gland in the forebrain. It sits on top of the third ventricle in the diencephalon. It gets its pinecone-shaped name from its form. This gland is made of secretory cells called pinealocytes. These cells are arranged in tight cords and clusters around dense particles of calcium salts. The pineal gland mainly releases melatonin, a hormone made from serotonin. Melatonin levels in the blood follow a day-night cycle. Light exposure affects this pattern.

cells and secretions of the pancreas

Pancreatic Hormones and Digestive Cells

The pancreas uses two main kinds of cells to support digestion and blood sugar control. Its exocrine cells and endocrine cells work together to keep the body balanced. The pancreas is a glandular organ in the abdominal cavity, and it belongs to both the digestive and endocrine systems. Exocrine function comes from acinar cells, which are grouped into clusters called acini. These cells release large amounts of alkaline digestive juice that is rich in enzymes. This secretion helps support...

hormones regulating blood glucose

Insulin and glucagon are pancreatic hormones that help keep blood glucose levels in balance. Insulin is released by beta cells when blood glucose is high. Glucagon is released by alpha cells when blood glucose drops below normal. Insulin helps glucose move into insulin-dependent cells that have insulin receptors on their plasma membranes. It increases the number of glucose transport proteins in the cell membrane, which allows glucose to enter the cell more easily. This raises glucose use and...

diabetes mellitus: overview and type i subtype

diabetes-mellitus-overview-and-type-i-subtype

Diabetes Mellitus: Blood Sugar Control

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder that raises blood glucose levels. It happens when the body does not make enough insulin, when cells do not respond well to insulin, or when both problems are present. This condition can affect health and quality of life in many people worldwide. Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease. In this form, the immune system attacks and destroys the beta cells in the pancreas that produce insulin. Because of this damage, the body cannot make enough...

gonadal and placental hormones

Hormones in Sexual Development and Pregnancy

Gonadal and placental hormones guide sexual development, reproduction, and pregnancy. The gonads are the testes in males and the ovaries in females. They produce hormones that help control these body processes. In males, testosterone is the main gonadal androgen, or male sex hormone. It helps the penis and testes mature. It also drives secondary sex characteristics, such as a deeper voice and facial and pubic hair growth. Testosterone also supports sperm production. In females, estrogen and...

diabetes mellitus: type 2 and gestational

Type 2 Diabetes and Pregnancy Risks

Type 2 diabetes and gestational diabetes both involve problems with blood sugar control. In Type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance develops when insulin receptors on cells lose their response to insulin. This lowers the cell’s ability to take up glucose and leaves blood glucose levels high. Doctors use a series of blood glucose tests to diagnose Type 2 diabetes. These tests show whether blood glucose is in the normal range. If results are abnormal, a patient may be labeled prediabetic or...

key terms and concepts

Explore how insulin stores glucose and how glucagon releases it. Learn how pancreatic hormones help high school students understand blood sugar balance.

How Insulin and Glucagon Shift Energy | JoVE K12

anatomy and physiology

JoVE Core Anatomy and Physiology showcases the anatomical and physiological details of the human body in comprehensive, clear, and engaging video animations. This collection of lessons focuses on the structures, components, functions, and requirements of the human body. It is complemented by scientist-in-action videos that demonstrate the application of this knowledge in real-world medical and research settings.

Alabama Course of Study Science

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

9-12.HA.1.6.a

Florida Department of Education

High School

Life Science

SC.912.L.14

SC.912.L.14.32

Organization of the Nervous System

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Functional Divisions of the Nervous System

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Neurons: The Axon

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Ligand-gated Ion Channels

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Mechanically-gated Ion Channels

Resting Membrane Potential

Resting Potential Decay

Graded Potential

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Action Potential: Phases of Stimulation

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Anatomy of the Brain: Major Regions

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Nervous System

Content elaboration: The nervous system consists of neurons and supporting cells that combine to form nerves, the spinal cord and the brain. The primary functions of the nervous system are sensation, integration and response. A comparison of the structures and functions of the central and peripheral nervous systems should be explored. The central nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system includes the remaining nervous tissue. A neuron consists of dendrites, a cell body and an axon. Neurons conduct electrical impulses along their membranes and at synapses. Brain cells can detect and sometimes respond to these impulses. Neuroglial cells help to support neural function. The brain consists of three major parts: the cerebrum, cerebellum and brainstem. The cerebrum is divided into lobes and hemispheres. Functions of the cerebrum that may be explored include voluntary muscle control, memory, sensory perception, emotions and speech. The cerebellum is primarily responsible for balance and coordination. The brainstem, a part of the autonomic nervous system, includes structural divisions that perform basic life functions such as breathing and heart rate. The spinal cord is a continuation of the brainstem. The spinal cord is a bundle of nerve tracts that transmits nerve signals between the brain and the body through electrical impulses. Nerves are bundles of neurons that transmit impulses between the peripheral and central nervous systems. The study of nerves can include sciatic, cranial and spinal nerves. Supporting structures of the central nervous system include the meninges and cerebrospinal fluid which protect the central nervous system. Processes of the nervous system are action potential propagation, simple nerve pathways (reflex arc) and neurotransmitter function. Homeostatic imbalances are explored. These include, but are not limited to, the effects of drugs, mental illnesses, spinal injuries, concussions, meningitis and multiple sclerosis (MS). Investigations are used to understand and explain the nervous system in a variety of inquiry and design scenarios that can incorporate evolutionary concepts, scientific reasoning, comparative analysis, communication skills and real-world applications.

Nervous System

How Insulin and Glucagon Shift Energy

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