Name: water standards for concrete mixing
Uploaded: 2024-11-07T14:48:25.000Z
Duration: 1 min 19 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

9-12

Physical Geology

Earth's Resources

Water

Quality of Water

向混凝土中加水有助于水泥的水化反应，从而增强混凝土的强度和耐久性。
通常，如果可获取，会使用饮用水拌合混凝土。水中过高的钠离子或钾离子会降低混凝土的强度和耐久性。
此外，可使用已沉淀去除过量淤泥的水、无杂质的混凝土搅拌机清洗水、弱酸性的天然水以及无藻类的水进行混凝土搅拌。
建议使用 pH 值在 6 至 8 范围内、非盐性或半咸性的水进行混合。
适合拌合的水还可通过在混凝土凝结后保持水泥持续水化所需的水分，从而有助于混凝土的养护。
使用含有游离二氧化碳的水养护混凝土可能导致硬化混凝土表面发生侵蚀。此外，养护水中若含有铁或有机物，可能会在混凝土表面产生污渍。
使用海水进行混凝土拌合或养护可能导致钢筋腐蚀，并引发持续潮湿和泛碱现象。

水质

在混凝土制备过程中，水的质量至关重要，因为它会影响混凝土的强度和耐久性。通常首选饮用水;但是，水中不能含有过多的钠或钾，以免损害混凝土的完整性。水质通常根据溶解固体、氯化物和硫酸盐等杂质来评估，其 pH 值最好在 6 到 8 之间。即使是微酸性的天然水也可以接受，除非其中含有有害的有机物或藻类，因为这些物质可能会对混凝土的性能产生不利影响。这些杂质的允许限度因 BS 3148:1980、BS EN 1008:2002 和 ASTM C 1602–06 等不同标准而异。如果泥沙含量高，可以通过将水静置在沉淀池中来降低泥沙含量，混凝土搅拌机的冲洗水如果干净，可以重复使用。虽然饮用水也适用于养护，但养护水中必须不含游离二氧化碳等杂质，因为游离二氧化碳会腐蚀硬化混凝土，还不能含有铁或有机物，因为铁或有机物可能会导致染色。虽然淡水稀缺的地区可以考虑使用海水，但海水存在钢筋腐蚀和白华等风险，因此通常不建议用于混合或养护。因此，虽然混凝土混合和养护的水质要求很严格，但根据混凝土的应用和环境考虑，仍存在一定的灵活性。

向混凝土中加水有助于水泥的水化反应，从而增强混凝土的强度和耐久性。  
通常情况下，如果有条件，应使用饮用水……

Education

教育

JoVE Core

Civil Engineering

土木工程

Unit 1

第一单元

Aggregates and Water

骨料与水

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

关键术语与概念

water standards for concrete mixing

Water standards for concrete mixing help control strength and durability. Potable water is usually preferred. Even so, it should not contain too much sodium or potassium, because these salts can weaken concrete integrity.

Water quality is judged by impurities such as dissolved solids, chlorides, and sulfates. The pH value is ideally between 6 and 8. Slightly acidic natural water may still be acceptable if it does not contain harmful organic matter or algae. Limits for these impurities depend on standards such as BS 3148:1980, BS EN 1008:2002, and ASTM C 1602–06.

High silt content can be reduced by letting the water stand in a settling basin. Clean wash water from concrete mixers may also be reused. For curing, potable water can be suitable too, but it should not contain free carbon dioxide, which can erode hardened concrete, or iron and organic matter that can cause staining.

Seawater may be considered in places with little freshwater, but it is generally not advised for mixing or curing. It can lead to reinforcement corrosion and efflorescence. Overall, the water used in concrete must match the job and the environment, even though some flexibility is allowed.

Water Standards for Concrete Mixing

unsoundness of aggregate due to volume change

unsoundness-of-aggregate-due-to-volume-change

Aggregate Durability in Freeze-Thaw Cycles

Aggregate durability can decline when volume changes damage the particles. Freezing and thawing, thermal change, and wetting and drying all place stress on aggregates. When unsound aggregates break down under these conditions, they can contribute to scaling, pop-outs, and cracking in concrete. Some aggregates are more vulnerable than others. Porous flints, cherts, and aggregates that contain clay minerals are especially prone to this kind of damage. Their internal structure can make them...

deleterious substances in aggregate

Testing Aggregate Impurities in Concrete

Aggregate impurities can lower the quality and durability of concrete. Organic matter, such as loam in sand, can interfere with cement hydration and weaken the bond between the aggregate and the cement paste. Organic impurities are often checked with a colorimetric test. In this test, the darkness of the solution after agitation shows the level of organic content. Clay and fine material can also coat aggregate particles and reduce the bond with the cement paste. The amount of clay and silt in...

sieve analysis and grading curves

Aggregate Size Testing with Sieve Grading

Aggregate size testing with sieve grading measures the particle size distribution of aggregate materials. It starts with a dried sample of aggregate that is weighed first. The sample is then sorted through a stack of square-opening sieves arranged from largest opening on top to smallest opening below. The sieve stack is shaken or vibrated so the particles move through the openings by size. After a set time, the material left on each sieve is weighed. That weight is then written as a percentage...

fineness modulus

Fineness Modulus from Sieve Analysis

Fineness modulus is a numerical index used to describe how coarse or fine aggregate particles are. For sand, it is found from sieve analysis using a standard set of ASTM sieves. The result helps show whether the sample is finer or more coarse. To calculate fineness modulus, first record the weight of aggregate retained on each sieve and in the pan at the bottom. Then find the cumulative weight retained on each sieve. Next, express each cumulative weight as a percentage of the total sample...

types of aggregate grading

Aggregate Grading for Strong Concrete Mixes

Aggregate grading describes the particle size distribution in a sample of aggregate. It is important for making a concrete mix that has enough strength, reasonable workability, and minimal segregation. The right grading also helps concrete stay economical. There are four main types of aggregate gradation: well-graded, uniformly graded, gap-graded, and open-graded. Each type has a different pattern on a gradation curve, which shows how particle sizes are spread across sieve sizes. These...

maximum size of aggregate

How Aggregate Size Affects Concrete Mix

Aggregate size affects how concrete is mixed, placed, and strengthened. The maximum size of aggregate is defined by the sieve aperture that retains 15 percent or more of the particles in the sample. This size choice helps determine the concrete’s water demand, workability, and final strength. Larger aggregate particles reduce the surface area that must be covered by cement paste. As a result, they can lower the water needed in the mix. When the desired workability and richness are kept, this...

quality of water

Water standards for concrete mixing help control strength and durability. Potable water is usually preferred. Even so, it should not contain too much sodium or potassium, because these salts can weaken concrete integrity. Water quality is judged by impurities such as dissolved solids, chlorides, and sulfates. The pH value is ideally between 6 and 8. Slightly acidic natural water may still be acceptable if it does not contain harmful organic matter or algae. Limits for these impurities depend...

testing water quality

Water Tests for Concrete Performance

Water tests for concrete performance help determine whether an uncertain water source is safe to use in cement and mortar. The main checks compare the water against de-ionized or distilled water benchmarks. Engineers look at both setting time and the compressive strength of mortar made with the test water. Standards set clear limits for these results. ASTM C1602 requires setting times to stay within 90 minutes of the control. BS 3146:1980 allows a 30-minute change in initial setting, while BS...

aggregates classification

Aggregate Types by Size, Weight, and Source

Aggregate types are grouped by size, petrographic characteristics, weight, and source. These categories help describe how different aggregates are identified and used in concrete. Size is one of the most common ways to classify them. Based on particle size, aggregates are either coarse or fine. Coarse aggregates are particles that do not pass through ASTM sieve No. 4. Fine aggregates are the particles that do pass through that sieve. Petrographic classification looks at shared mineral features.

shape and texture of coarse aggregate

How Aggregate Form Changes Concrete

Aggregate form affects how concrete mixes, packs, and bonds. Coarse aggregate is classified by the sharpness or roundness of its edges and corners. The main shapes are rounded, angular, elongated, and flaky. These shapes help show how the particles will behave in concrete. Rounded aggregates are fully shaped by attrition, which means they have been worn down by rubbing and impact. River gravel and seashore gravel are common examples. Angular aggregates, such as crushed rock, have clear edges...

bonding and strength of aggregate

How Aggregate Shape Affects Concrete Bond

Aggregate shape and surface texture affect how well concrete holds together. Rough, angular aggregates usually bond more strongly with the cement matrix than smooth, rounded ones. This stronger adhesion can help produce high-strength concrete. Angular aggregates also have a larger surface area. That gives the cement paste more area to grip, which improves the bond. Bond quality is hard to measure directly, and there is no single test that is accepted everywhere. A broken concrete sample can...

toughness and hardness of aggregate

Testing Aggregate Impact and Abrasion

Aggregate toughness and hardness are important for concrete used on pavement surfaces and industrial floors that must carry heavy loads. Toughness means an aggregate can resist failure from impact. Hardness means it can resist wear.

specific gravity of aggregate

Aggregate Pore Effects on Specific Gravity

Aggregate specific gravity depends on the pores inside the material. These pores may be permeable or impermeable, so the same aggregate can be described in more than one way. For this reason, specific gravity is grouped into bulk or gross specific gravity, apparent specific gravity, and absolute specific gravity. Bulk or gross specific gravity uses the mass of aggregate in the saturated surface-dry state. It is compared with the total volume of the aggregate, including both the solids and the...

bulk density of aggregate

How Aggregate Size Affects Bulk Density

Bulk density describes the mass of aggregate that fills a unit volume, including the empty spaces between particles. Those void spaces remain because aggregate particles cannot be packed so tightly that every gap disappears. In practice, bulk refers to the total volume of both the particles and the spaces around them. This measurement matters when aggregates are batched by volume. It also helps convert materials measured by mass into a volume-based quantity. Natural mineral aggregates such as...

porosity and absorption of aggregate

Aggregate Pore States and Water Uptake

Aggregate contains pores of different sizes, and those pores may be sealed inside the particle or open to the surface. Open pores let water enter the aggregate. Because aggregate makes up about three-quarters of concrete by volume, its porosity strongly affects the porosity of the finished concrete. Aggregate can also be described by its moisture state. When water fills every pore, the material is saturated and surface-dry. If it sits in dry air, some water evaporates and the aggregate becomes...

moisture content and bulking of aggregate

moisture-content-and-bulking-of-aggregate

How Aggregate Moisture Affects Concrete Mixes

Aggregate moisture affects concrete mixing by changing how much water must be added to the batch. Moisture content is the water coating the outside of aggregate that is in a saturated and surface-dry state. The total water in moist aggregate includes both moisture content and water absorption. When aggregates sit in stockpiles or are exposed to rain, they can take in moisture. That extra water must be counted during concrete batching so the water-to-cement ratio stays correct. The moisture...

key terms and concepts

Learn how water quality affects concrete strength, durability, pH, salts, silt, curing water, and why seawater is usually avoided.

Water Standards for Concrete Mixing | JoVE K12

JoVE Core Civil Engineering provides a foundational exploration of essential construction materials in civil engineering, focusing on bricks, stones, steel, wood, and concrete through easy-to-understand animated videos. This collection covers the properties, manufacturing processes, and practical applications of these materials. Additionally, the accompanied science-in-action videos demonstrate the research experiments performed in laboratories.

civil engineering

Minnesota Academic Standards in Science

Chemistry

2.1.1 9C.1.1.1.1

biofuels-producing-ethanol-from-cellulosic-material

Biofuels: Producing Ethanol from Cellulosic Material

Source: Laboratories of Margaret Workman and Kimberly Frye - Depaul University
In this experiment, cellulosic material (such as corn stalks, leaves, ...

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells

Source: Laboratories of Margaret Workman and Kimberly Frye - Depaul University
The United States consumes a large amount of energy &#8211; the current ...

determination-of-nox-in-automobile-exhaust-using-uv-vis-spectroscopy

Determination Of NOx in Automobile Exhaust Using UV-VIS Spectroscopy

Source: Laboratories of Margaret Workman and Kimberly Frye - Depaul University
In the troposphere, ozone is naturally formed when sunlight splits nitrogen ...

Energy Basics

Chemical reactions, such as those that occur when you light a match, involve changes in energy as well as matter.

Chemical changes and their accompanying ...

Making a Geologic Cross Section

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Geologic maps were first made and utilized in Europe, in the mid-to-late 18th century. ...

extraction-of-biomarkers-from-sediments-accelerated-solvent-extraction

Extraction of Biomarkers from Sediments - Accelerated Solvent Extraction

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
The distribution of a group of organic biomarkers called glycerol-dialkyl ...

Quarrying of Stone

Quarrying involves the meticulous extraction of stone from a quarry by either using controlled explosions or precision cutting techniques to remove the ...

Energy

The universe is composed of matter in different forms, and all forms of matter contain energy.&#160; The different forms of energy on Earth originate from ...

Energy resources
• Renewable and nonrenewable energy sources and efficiency
• Alternate energy sources and efficiency
• Resource availability
• Mining and resource extraction

Content elaboration: This unit builds upon a variety of topics studied in previous courses. In elementary school, renewable/nonrenewable energy, soils, the atmosphere and water are introduced. In middle school, Earth's spheres, Earth's resources and energy resources are explored. At the high school level, water, air, chemistry and energy topics are studied. In this course, the Earth Resources topic should be looked at through the lens of geology when referring to renewable/non-renewable resources, air, water, soil, and energy. In this course, renewable and nonrenewable energy resources topics investigate the effectiveness and efficiency for differing types of energy resources at a local, state, national and global level. Feasibility, availability and environmental cost are included in the extraction, storage, use and disposal of both abiotic and biotic resources. Modeling (3-D or virtual), simulations and real-world data are used to investigate energy resources and exploration. The emphasis is on current, actual data, contemporary science and technological advances in the field of energy resources. Relating Earth's resources (e.g., energy, air, water, soil) to a global scale and using technology to collect global resource data for comparative classroom study is recommended. In addition, it is important to connect industry and the scientific community to the classroom to increase the depth of understanding. Critical thinking and problem-solving skills are important in evaluating resource use and conservation. Smaller scale investigations, such as a field study to monitor stream quality, construction mud issues, storm water management, nonpoint source contamination problems (e.g., road-salt runoff, agricultural runoff, parking lot runoff) or thermal water contamination, can be useful in developing a deeper understanding of Earth's resources. Earth systems are used to illustrate the interconnectedness of each of Earth's spheres (hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere and biosphere) and the relationship between each type of Earth's resources.

Energy resources

Measuring Tropospheric Ozone

Source: Laboratories of Margaret Workman and Kimberly Frye - Depaul University
Ozone is a form of elemental oxygen (O3), a molecule of three oxygen atoms ...

Bioremediation

Bioremediation is the use of prokaryotes, fungi, or plants to remove pollutants from the environment. This process has been used to remove harmful toxins ...

Climate Change

The certainty of climate change remains a public controversy despite the consensus among approximately 97% of active climate researchers, who not only ...

Global Climate Change

Throughout its ~4.5 billion year history, the Earth has experienced periods of warming and cooling. However, the current drastic increase in global ...

Glovebox and Impurity Sensors

Source: Tamara M. Powers, Department of Chemistry, Texas A&#38;M University&#160;
The glovebox provides a straightforward means to handle air- and ...

Air
• Primary and secondary contaminants
• Greenhouse gases

Content elaboration: This unit builds upon a variety of topics studied in previous courses. In elementary school, renewable/nonrenewable energy, soils, the atmosphere and water are introduced. In middle school, Earth's spheres, Earth's resources and energy resources are explored. At the high school level, water, air, chemistry and energy topics are studied. In this course, the Earth Resources topic should be looked at through the lens of geology when referring to renewable/non-renewable resources, air, water, soil, and energy. In this course, renewable and nonrenewable energy resources topics investigate the effectiveness and efficiency for differing types of energy resources at a local, state, national and global level. Feasibility, availability and environmental cost are included in the extraction, storage, use and disposal of both abiotic and biotic resources. Modeling (3-D or virtual), simulations and real-world data are used to investigate energy resources and exploration. The emphasis is on current, actual data, contemporary science and technological advances in the field of energy resources. Relating Earth's resources (e.g., energy, air, water, soil) to a global scale and using technology to collect global resource data for comparative classroom study is recommended. In addition, it is important to connect industry and the scientific community to the classroom to increase the depth of understanding. Critical thinking and problem-solving skills are important in evaluating resource use and conservation. Smaller scale investigations, such as a field study to monitor stream quality, construction mud issues, storm water management, nonpoint source contamination problems (e.g., road-salt runoff, agricultural runoff, parking lot runoff) or thermal water contamination, can be useful in developing a deeper understanding of Earth's resources. Earth systems are used to illustrate the interconnectedness of each of Earth's spheres (hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere and biosphere) and the relationship between each type of Earth's resources.

turbidity-and-total-solids-in-surface-water

Turbidity and Total Solids in Surface Water

Source: Laboratories of Margaret Workman and Kimberly Frye - Depaul University
Turbidity and total solids are related measurements addressing clarity of ...

Dissolved Oxygen in Surface Water

Source: Laboratories of Margaret Workman and Kimberly Frye - Depaul University
Dissolved oxygen (DO) measurements calculate the amount of gaseous oxygen ...

Nutrients in Aquatic Ecosystems

Source: Laboratories of Margaret Workman and Kimberly Frye - Depaul University
Nitrogen and phosphorus are essential plant nutrients found in aquatic ...

water-quality-analysis-via-indicator-organisms

Water Quality Analysis via Indicator Organisms

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba -The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
Water quality analysis monitors ...

isolation-of-fecal-bacteria-from-water-samples-by-filtration

Isolation of Fecal Bacteria from Water Samples by Filtration

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
The quality of water destined ...

Water added to concrete aids in the hydration of cement, contributing to the strength and durability of concrete.
Generally, potable water, if available, ...

design-example-analyzing-capacity-contours-for-flood-risk-assessment

Design Example: Analyzing Capacity Contours for Flood Risk Assessment

Flood risk assessment involves careful planning and analysis to ensure the safety of communities near water retention structures. Capacity contours are a ...

Testing Water Quality

If the quality of water available for preparing concrete is uncertain, its suitability is determined by comparing the setting time of cement and the ...

Using a pH Meter

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Zhongqi He - United States Department of Agriculture
Acids and bases are substances capable of donating protons (H+) and ...

Water
• Potable water and water quality
• Hypoxia, eutrophication

Content elaboration: This unit builds upon a variety of topics studied in previous courses. In elementary school, renewable/nonrenewable energy, soils, the atmosphere and water are introduced. In middle school, Earth's spheres, Earth's resources and energy resources are explored. At the high school level, water, air, chemistry and energy topics are studied. In this course, the Earth Resources topic should be looked at through the lens of geology when referring to renewable/non-renewable resources, air, water, soil, and energy. In this course, renewable and nonrenewable energy resources topics investigate the effectiveness and efficiency for differing types of energy resources at a local, state, national and global level. Feasibility, availability and environmental cost are included in the extraction, storage, use and disposal of both abiotic and biotic resources. Modeling (3-D or virtual), simulations and real-world data are used to investigate energy resources and exploration. The emphasis is on current, actual data, contemporary science and technological advances in the field of energy resources. Relating Earth's resources (e.g., energy, air, water, soil) to a global scale and using technology to collect global resource data for comparative classroom study is recommended. In addition, it is important to connect industry and the scientific community to the classroom to increase the depth of understanding. Critical thinking and problem-solving skills are important in evaluating resource use and conservation. Smaller scale investigations, such as a field study to monitor stream quality, construction mud issues, storm water management, nonpoint source contamination problems (e.g., road-salt runoff, agricultural runoff, parking lot runoff) or thermal water contamination, can be useful in developing a deeper understanding of Earth's resources. Earth systems are used to illustrate the interconnectedness of each of Earth's spheres (hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere and biosphere) and the relationship between each type of Earth's resources.

lead-analysis-of-soil-using-atomic-absorption-spectroscopy

Lead Analysis of Soil Using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy

Source: Laboratories of Margaret Workman and Kimberly Frye - Depaul University
Lead occurs naturally in soil, in levels ranging from 10-50 ppm. However, ...

carbon-and-nitrogen-analysis-of-environmental-samples

Carbon and Nitrogen Analysis of Environmental Samples

Source: Laboratories of Margaret Workman and Kimberly Frye - Depaul University
Elemental Analysis is a method used to determine elemental composition of a ...

soil-nutrient-analysis-nitrogen-phosphorus-and-potassium

Soil Nutrient Analysis: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium

Source: Laboratories of Margaret Workman and Kimberly Frye - Depaul University
In this experiment, three soil macronutrients are chemically extracted, ...

analysis-of-earthworm-populations-in-soil

Analysis of Earthworm Populations in Soil

Source: Laboratories of Margaret Workman and Kimberly Frye - Depaul University
Using mustard, Lumbricus terrestris earthworm populations can be sampled ...

determination-of-moisture-content-in-soil

Determination of Moisture Content in Soil

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
Soils normally contain a ...

The Soil Ecosystem

Plants obtain inorganic minerals and water from the soil, which acts as a natural medium for land plants. The composition and quality of soil depend not ...

What are Biogeochemical Cycles?

The most common elements in organic molecules, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus, are only available in the ecosystem in limited ...

The Carbon Cycle

Carbon is the basis of all organic matter on Earth, and is recycled through the ecosystem in two primary processes: one in which carbon is exchanged among ...

The Water Cycle

The Earth&rsquo;s hydrosphere includes all of the areas where the storage and movement of water occurs. Since water is the basis of all living processes, ...

environmental-applications-of-microorganisms

Environmental Applications of Microorganisms

Microorganisms play a pivotal role in maintaining ecosystem balance by recycling essential elements such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, as well as ...

What is an Ecosystem?

Overview

An ecosystem is the interaction between all abiotic and biotic factors in an environment and can be classified as terrestrial or aquatic. ...

Sustainable Development

As the human population continues to grow and use resources, we must be mindful of our planet&rsquo;s natural limits. Sustainable development provides a ...

The Efficient Amount of Recycling I

In an imaginary town, Greendale, residents carelessly dispose of recyclable plastics due to minimal additional trash pickup fees, leading to recyclable ...

Threats to Biodiversity

There have been five major extinction events throughout geological history, resulting in the elimination of biodiversity, followed by a rebound of species ...

Ecological Disturbance

An ecological disturbance is a temporary disruption in the environment resulting from abiotic, biotic, or anthropogenic factors, causing a pronounced ...

modifying-bank-erosion-hazard-index-behi-protocol-for-rapid

Modifying the Bank Erosion Hazard Index (BEHI) Protocol for Rapid Assessment of Streambank Erosion in Northeastern Ohio

Understanding the source of pollution in a stream is vital to preserving, restoring, and maintaining the stream&#8217;s function and habitat it provides. ...

Soil and sediment
• Desertification
• Mass wasting and erosion
• Sediment and contamination

Content elaboration: This unit builds upon a variety of topics studied in previous courses. In elementary school, renewable/nonrenewable energy, soils, the atmosphere and water are introduced. In middle school, Earth's spheres, Earth's resources and energy resources are explored. At the high school level, water, air, chemistry and energy topics are studied. In this course, the Earth Resources topic should be looked at through the lens of geology when referring to renewable/non-renewable resources, air, water, soil, and energy. In this course, renewable and nonrenewable energy resources topics investigate the effectiveness and efficiency for differing types of energy resources at a local, state, national and global level. Feasibility, availability and environmental cost are included in the extraction, storage, use and disposal of both abiotic and biotic resources. Modeling (3-D or virtual), simulations and real-world data are used to investigate energy resources and exploration. The emphasis is on current, actual data, contemporary science and technological advances in the field of energy resources. Relating Earth's resources (e.g., a, air, water, soil) to a global scale and using technology to collect global resource data for comparative classroom study is recommended. In addition, it is important to connect industry and the scientific community to the classroom to increase the depth of understanding. Critical thinking and problem-solving skills are important in evaluating resource use and conservation. Smaller scale investigations, such as a field study to monitor stream quality, construction mud issues, storm water management, nonpoint source contamination problems (e.g., road-salt runoff, agricultural runoff, parking lot runoff) or thermal water contamination, can be useful in developing a deeper understanding of Earth's resources. Earth systems are used to illustrate the interconnectedness of each of Earth's spheres (hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere and biosphere) and the relationship between each type of Earth's resources.

Soil and sediment

Water Standards for Concrete Mixing

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