The Isolation, Differentiation, and Quantification of Human Antibody-secreting B Cells from Blood: ELISpot as a Functional Readout of Humoral Immunity

摘要

人外周血通常用于评估体液免疫反应。本文介绍了从外周血中分离人 B 细胞、在培养物中将人 B 细胞分化为分泌抗体 （Ab） 的 B 细胞 （ASCs） 以及通过 ELISpot 测定计数总 IgM 和 IgG-ASCs 的方法。

摘要

The hallmark of humoral immunity is to generate functional ASCs, which synthesize and secrete Abs specific to an antigen (Ag), such as a pathogen, and are used for host defense. For the quantitative determination of the functional status of the humoral immune response of an individual, both serum Abs and circulating ASCs are commonly measured as functional readouts. In humans, peripheral blood is the most convenient and readily accessible sample that can be used for the determination of the humoral immune response elicited by host B cells. Distinct B-cell subsets, including ASCs, can be isolated directly from peripheral blood via selection with lineage-specific Ab-conjugated microbeads or via cell sorting with flow cytometry. Moreover, purified naïve and memory B cells can be activated and differentiated into ASCs in culture. The functional activities of ASCs to contribute to Ab secretion can be quantified by ELISpot, which is an assay that converges enzyme-linked immunoabsorbance assay (ELISA) and western blotting technologies to enable the enumeration of individual ASCs at the single-cell level. In practice, the ELISpot assay has been increasingly used to evaluate vaccine efficacy because of the ease of handling of a large number of blood samples. The methods of isolating human B cells from peripheral blood, the differentiation of B cells into ASCs in vitro, and the employment of ELISpot for the quantification of total IgM- and IgG-ASCs will be described here.

引言

B cells play a central role in the development of humoral immunity. They initially develop in the bone marrow and enter the blood stream as naïve B cells, which can migrate into the lymphoid tissues, such as the spleen, lymph nodes, and tonsils, for further development. Upon Ag encounter, some naïve B cells migrate into lymphoid follicles, where germinal center B cells can differentiate into memory B cells and plasmablasts (PBs)/plasma cells (PCs). While most PBs/PCs egress into the blood stream, a few eventually reside in the bone marrow to undergo terminal differentiation into long-lived PCs¹. B cells in circulation are heterogeneous, and at steady state, PBs/PCs are rare in peripheral blood². As a result of the availability of lineage-specific surface markers, flow cytometry has become a popular method for the identification and characterization of the B-cell subsets in peripheral blood. An extended application of flow cytometry is the addition of a cell sorter function, which permits the separation and isolation of individual subsets of B cells with high purity. Based on the expression of specific surface receptors at different developmental stages, human circulating B cells are generally classified into three main subpopulations: naïve B cells (CD19⁺CD27^-CD38^-), memory B cells (CD19⁺CD27⁺CD38^-), and PBs/PCs (CD19⁺CD27⁺CD38⁺)^3-4 (Figure 1). Naïve B cells by nature have not encountered Ags. However, they can be differentiated into IgM⁺CD27⁺ memory B cells. Although naïve B cells are homogeneous in expressing B-cell antigen receptor (BCR)-associated molecules (e.g., CD19, CD20 and CD22) they are heterogeneous in their immunoglobulin repertoire⁵. The majority of CD27⁺ memory B cells can be differentiated into CD27^+/hiCD38⁺ PBs/PCs⁶. In addition, memory B cells and PBs/PCs are polyclonal and exhibit developmental and functional heterogeneity^4-7. PBs/PCs in circulation are normally short-lived and do not express CD138, but those made to settle down in the bone marrow will terminally differentiate and become long-lived. Terminally differentiated PCs express CD138 and down-regulate CD27 molecules on their surfaces⁸. Since both PBs and PCs are capable of secreting Abs, in many occasions they are collectively denoted as ASCs. In contrast, neither naïve B cells nor memory B cells can produce appreciable amounts of Abs^9-10. Nevertheless, when isolated, both naïve and memory B cells can be differentiated into ASCs in 3 - 10 days when placed in the proper culture conditions^{6, 11-15}. In fact, ASCs derived from in vitro differentiation share similar surface expressions of CD27 and CD38 with those directly isolated from peripheral blood⁶. In addition, the ASCs differentiated in vitro express a low level of surface CD20, similar that of circulating PBs/PCs⁶. Although the culture-derived ASCs are all short-lived, they can secrete Abs, indicating that they are functionally competent and able to contribute to the humoral immunity.

Both ELISA and ELISpot are by far the most commonly applied methods with which to obtain functional information on the humoral immune response. ELISA is a 96-well plate-based assay, and it is frequently used to measure the titers of serum Ag-specific Abs and other analytes (e.g., cytokines). It is convenient and scalable. ELISA is designed to use a solid-phase enzyme assay to detect the presence of Abs or other substances, such as serum, in a liquid sample¹⁶. The readouts from serum ELISAs have been widely used to represent the immune response of the body. A tool necessary for the acquisition of readouts from ELISA assays is a spectrophotometric microplate reader. The reader can determine the optical density (O.D.) of the end products typically resulting from the reaction of horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated detection Abs and their specific substrates¹⁷. With regard to reporting the humoral immune response, serum Ab levels determined by ELISA denote the collective, but not individual, performance of ASCs in the body. In addition, ELISA fails to take into account the participation by memory B cells, which do not secrete Abs.

Like ELISA, ELISpot is a widely used method for detecting and monitoring the immune response in peripheral blood samples^17-18. ELISpot is a technique related to a sandwich ELISA. In it, cells are placed into the polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membrane-backed wells of 96-well microplates for a short-term culture. The ELISpot assay is analogous to performing western blotting on a microplate and developing the spots on the PVDF membrane in each well. An automated ELISpot reader system or a stereomicroscope for manual counting is required. The main advantage of ELISpot in detecting an immune response is its superb sensitivity in the quantification of ASCs and cytokine-secreting cells. It reports their functional activities in humoral and cellular immunity, respectively. In the measurement of humoral immune function, serum Ab levels determined by ELISA and the number of ASCs enumerated by ELISpot are often correlated, but the data readouts from these two assays have some differences in functional implications^19-20. The main advantage of ELISpot is its sensitivity of method. The level of serum Ab titers as reported by ELISA is presented semi-quantitatively as O.D. readouts, denoting the relative Ab level, or more quantitatively, as concentration readouts when a known amount of the proper isotypes of Abs is included for reference. In contrast, the results of ELISpot are presented as the absolute number of ASCs in a cell pool of interest (e.g., unfractionated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and purified B cells from PBMCs). ELISpot can detect a single ASC, but ELISA requires Ab amounts from ASCs to reach optimized assay-dependent concentrations prior to measurement. Hence, ELISpot is obviously superior to ELISA in sensitivity of quantification. Moreover, ELISpot is also suitable for quantifying the in vitro differentiated ASCs from activated memory B cells. Memory B cells do not secrete Abs but can differentiate into ASCs upon activation; they therefore have no contribution to serum Abs detected by ELISA. Thus, ELISpot is the method of choice in the measurement of the immune response of circulating memory B cells after activation in culture. It allows for the monitoring of the maintenance of long-term humoral immunity.

方案

Human peripheral blood must be obtained from healthy donors under informed consent, and the use of blood samples must conform to the approved guidelines established by individual institutional review boards. In this study, the protocol to use human blood in a demonstration of the results of flow cytometry (Figure 1) and ELISpot assays (Figure 3) was approved by the Internal Review Board of National Taiwan University Hospital (protocol number 201307019RINB).

1. Isolation and Purification of Human Peripheral Blood B Cells

1. Draw ~ 10 mL of blood from the median cubital vein (in the cubital fossa anterior to the elbow) into a 15-mL tube containing K₂EDTA (1.5 to 2.0 mg/mL blood) and immediately invert the tube several times to prevent clot formation.
2. Add 35 mL of autoclaved (121 °C, 15 min) red blood cell (RBC) lysis buffer (150 mM NH₄Cl, 10 mM KHCO₃, and 1 mM EDTA; pH 7.4) to the tube containing the fresh blood sample (≥ 3:1 vol/vol) and incubate at room temperature (RT) for no longer than 5 min.
   NOTE: The appearance of light transmission through the tube indicates the completion of RBC lysis.
3. Centrifuge at 600 x g at RT for 5 min. Ensure that the pellet is white in color.
4. Resuspend the pellet with 10 mL of autoclaved phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, 137 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 4.3 mM Na₂HPO₄, and 1.47 mM KH₂PO₄; pH 7.4) and centrifuge as in step 1.3.
5. Discard the supernatant, resuspend the pellet with 10 mL of RPMI 1640 medium (supplements: 10% fetal calf serum, 100 U/mL penicillin/streptomycin, 0.25 µg/mL amphotericin B, and 2 mM L-glutamine), and then plate the cells into a 10-cm culture dish (10 mL of blood per dish). Place the dish in a 37 °C incubator with 5% CO₂ for 30 min.
6. Gently swirl the culture dish a few times and place the culture medium (suspension cells) into 15-mL plastic conical tubes. Discard the adherent cells (mostly macrophages) on the culture dishes.
7. Centrifuge at 600 x g at RT for 5 min. Discard the supernatant.
8. Resuspend the pellet with 1 mL of RPMI 1640 medium. Count the cell number with a hemocytometer or an automated cell counter.
   NOTE: The viability of isolated leukocytes is normally greater than 90% by trypan blue exclusion.
9. Centrifuge as in step 1.7 and resuspend the cells in ~ 200 µL of cold PBS buffer (0.5% bovine serum albumin (BSA) and 2 mM EDTA) at the concentration of 5 - 10 x 10⁶ cells/mL.
10. Add 5 µL of biotinylated anti-human Ab cocktail specific to blood cells (for the negative selection of B cells) per 10⁶ cells and incubate on ice for 30 min²¹.
    NOTE: The anti-human Ab cocktail should at least include Abs specific to CD2 (or CD3), CD14, and CD16.
11. Add a 10-fold excess volume of sterile PBS to the cells, centrifuge at 600 x g for 5 min, and discard the supernatant.
12. Add equal amounts of streptavidin-conjugated microbeads (5 µL per 10⁶ cells) to the pellet and mix thoroughly.
13. Incubate on ice for 30 min in a 15-mL plastic conical tube.
14. Add 2 mL of PBS buffer into the tube.
15. Place the tube into a magnetic stand and incubate at RT for 8 min. The brown microbeads will gradually attach to the tube wall next to the magnet²².
16. With the tube remaining in the magnetic stand, carefully transfer the supernatant into a new sterile 15-mL tube²².
17. Repeat steps 1.14 to 1.16, and combine the two supernatants that contain the untouched B cells. Discard the microbeads.
18. Centrifuge at 600 x g at RT for 5 min. Discard the supernatant.
19. Resuspend the pellet in RPMI 1640 medium for downstream experiments.
    ​NOTE: Typically, 1 - 5 x 10⁵ B cells with a purity greater than 95% from 10 mL of peripheral blood can be isolated²³.

2. Purification and Separation of Memory and Naïve B Cells from Isolated B Cells

1. Use cells purified from step 1 and determine the cell number using a hemocytometer or an automatic cell counter.
2. Resuspend the cells in 100 µL of cold PBS buffer after centrifugation at 600 x g and RT for 5 min.
3. Add 1 - 2 µg of biotinylated CD27 mAb per 10⁶ cells and incubate on ice for 30 min.
4. Add 10 mL of PBS buffer to the tube and centrifuge at 600 x g for 5 min.
5. Discard the supernatant and resuspend the cells in 50 µL of PBS buffer.
6. Add equal amounts of streptavidin magnetic microbeads (1 - 2 µg/10⁶ cells) to cells in a 15-mL plastic conical tube.
7. Gently mix well and incubate on ice for 30 min.
8. Add 2 - 3 mL of PBS buffer to the tube.
9. Place the tube into a magnetic stand and incubate at RT for 8 min to allow the brown microbeads to attach to the side closest to the magnet.
10. With the tube in the magnetic stand, carefully transfer the supernatant fraction into a new sterile tube. This fraction contains the enriched CD27^- naïve B cells.
11. Add 5 mL to the tube containing the microbeads and gently resuspend the microbeads (i.e., the enriched fraction of CD27⁺ memory B cells)^24-25.
12. Centrifuge at 600 x g at RT for 5 min. Resuspend the pellets with RPMI 1640 medium for the downstream experiments.
    ​NOTE: Typically, ~ 30 - 60% of B cells can be purified as CD27⁺ memory cells from the PBMCs of a healthy donor^{7, 25-26}.

3. Cell Sorting for the Collection of Naïve B Cells, Memory B Cells, and PBs/PCs

1. Using the cells purified from step 1, determine the cell number using a hemocytometer or an automatic cell counter.
2. Resuspend the cells in cold PBS buffer at the concentration of 10⁷ per mL in a 5-mL polystyrene tube.
3. Add 1 - 2 µg of human IgG per 10⁶ cells and incubate on ice for 10 min for the Fc block.
4. Add 1 µg each of anti-CD19-APC (clone: HIB19), anti-CD27-eFluor450 (clone: O323), and anti-CD38-PE (clone: HIT2) per 10⁶ cells; mix well and incubate on ice for 30 min^{4, 27}.
5. In the last 5 min in step 3.4, add 5 µL of the commercial 7-aminoactinomycin D (7-AAD).
6. Add 2 mL of PBS to the tube, vortex, and centrifuge at 600 x g for 5 min.
7. Resuspend the cells in sorting buffer (sterile PBS with 2% BSA and 2 mM EDTA) at a concentration of 1 - 5 x 10⁷ cells per mL in a 15-mL tube.
8. Filter the cells through a nylon mesh cell strainer (40 µm pore size) to eliminate cell clumps.
9. Separate the cells with a flow cytometric sorter equipped with three lasers: violet (405 nm), blue (488 nm), and red (640 nm).
   NOTE: The blue laser alone is sufficient for 3-color flow cytometry^27-28.
10. Sort the cells into three 15-mL tubes (containing 5 mL of RPMI medium) for the simultaneous collection of naïve B cells (CD19⁺CD27^-), memory B cells (CD19⁺CD27⁺), and PBs/PCs (CD19⁺CD27^+/hiCD38⁺)^{3-4, 28}.
    ​NOTE: Sorted naïve and memory B cells can be cultured as described in step 4.

4. In Vitro Differentiation of Isolated Human CD19⁺ B Cells, CD19⁺CD27⁺ Memory B Cells, and CD19⁺CD27^- Naïve B Cells

1. Using the cells purified in steps 1.19, 2.10, 2.11 and 3.10, determine the cell number with a hemocytometer or an automatic cell counter.
2. Resuspend the cells with RPMI 1640 medium at a concentration of 1 - 10 x 10⁵ per mL and aliquot them into the wells of a 12-well plate.
3. Add CpG (ODN 2006) at 5 µg/10⁶ cells/mL^{18, 29}.
4. Culture the cells in a 37 °C incubator with 5% CO₂ for 5 days.
5. Harvest the cells from each well, place them separately into 15-mL tubes, add 5 mL of PBS to each tube, and centrifuge them at 600 x g and RT for 5 min.
6. Count the cells using a hemocytometer or an automatic cell counter. Resuspend the cells at a concentration of 1 - 10 x 10⁵ per mL with RPMI 1640 medium.

5. ELISpot Assay

1. Add 30 µL of 35% ethanol in distilled water to each well of the ELISpot plates for 30 s.
   NOTE: When pipetting, avoid touching the membrane in the wells at all times.
2. Invert the ELISpot plates to remove the ethanol.
3. Put 150 µL of autoclaved ddH₂O into each well and incubate them at RT for 5 min to flush off the residual ethanol; follow with a wash of sterile PBS at RT for 3 min.
   NOTE: Steps 5.1 to 5.3 may be optional, depending on the manufacture of the plates.
4. Put 50 µL of 5 µg/mL polyclonal F(ab')₂ fragment of anti-human Ig (IgG + IgM + IgA) (in PBS) into each well of the ELISpot plates and incubate them at 4 °C overnight (preferred) or 37 °C for 2 h¹¹.
   NOTE: Seal the edges of plates with Parafilm until use.
5. Invert the plates to remove unbound Abs, add 200 µL of PBS to each well, and incubate them twice at RT for 3 min each time.
6. Add 200 µL of PBS with 5% BSA (or RPMI 1640 medium) to each well for blocking, and incubate them at RT for 2 h.
7. Invert the plates to remove the blocking buffer. Wash each well twice with 200 µL of PBS, as in step 5.5.
8. Add 100 µL of RPMI 1640 medium to each well and incubate them at 37 °C.
9. When ready to seed the cells, invert the plates to remove the RPMI 1640 medium.
10. Seed 100 µL (5 x 10⁴), 50 µL (2.5 x 10⁴), and 25 µL (1.25 x 10⁴) of the cells (from steps 1.19, 2.10, 2.11, 3.10, and 4.6) into the wells of an ELISpot plate. With RPMI 1640 medium, bring the volume to 150 µL/well.
    NOTE: A minimum of one or two 2-fold serial dilutions for plating the cells is recommended.
11. Incubate the plates in a 37 °C incubator with 5% CO₂ for 8 - 14 h¹⁸. Avoid moving the plates during incubation.
12. Invert the plates to remove the cells and RPMI 1640 medium.
13. Add 200 µL/well of PBS-T (PBS with 0.05% Tween 20) and incubate them 5 times at RT, each time for 3 min. Invert the plate to remove the wash buffer between each of the 5 washes.
14. Add either goat anti-human IgG-alkaline phosphatase (AP), Fcγ-specific Abs (for IgG detection, 1:5,000 in PBS-T) or goat anti-human IgM-AP, Fcµ fragment-specific Abs (for IgM detection, 1:5,000 in PBS-T) into the designated wells and incubate at RT for 2 h in the dark.
15. Wash each well twice with 200 µL of PBS, as in step 5.5.
16. Add 50 µL/well of bromochloroindolyl phosphate-nitro blue tetrazolium (BCIP/NBT) substrate solution. Purple-colored spots normally appear in 5 - 15 min.
17. Add 100 µL/well of ddH₂O to prevent the over-development of spots.
18. Rinse the plates with running tap water after the complete development of all spots.
19. Remove the underdrain of the plates and allow them to air dry in the dark.
20. Count the spots using an automated plate reader with an image acquisition/analysis unit (e.g., an automatic scanner or manually via a dissecting microscope).
    NOTE: The plates can be stored at RT in the dark and analyzed later.

结果

PBMCs were depleted of RBCs and adherent cells (steps 1.2 to 1.7). An aliquot (2 x 10⁶) of cells were subjected to a flow cytometric analysis to illustrate the populations of naïve B cells, memory B cells, and PBs/PCs in peripheral blood (Figure 1). In this donor's PBMCs, about 10% of the lymphocytes were CD19⁺ B cells. In the B-cell compartment, the percentage of CD19⁺CD27^- naïve B cells was around 50%. On the other hand, about...

讨论

Isolation and Purification of Human Peripheral Blood B Cells

Normally, RBCs can be efficiently ruptured and cleared by lysis buffer (step 1.2). It is important not to incubate PBMCs with the RBC lysis buffer longer than 5 min, as cell viability might be affected by the ammonium chloride. Alternatively, RBCs and platelets can be simultaneously removed by the following protocol.

Mix fresh whole blood with acid-citrate-dextrose (ACD) buffer (39 mM citric acid, 75 mM sodiu...

材料

本文使用的材料清单

姓名	公司	目录编号	评论
BD Vacutainer K2E	BD Biosciences 367525		10 mL 管
Ficoll-Paque Plus	GE Healthcare	17-1440-02	无内毒素
台盼蓝 0.5% 溶液	生物工业	03-102-1B
IMag 人 B 淋巴细胞富集套装	BD Biosciences 558007
生物素化 CD27 mAb	Biolegend	302804	克隆 O323
链霉亲和素磁性微珠	BD Biosciences 9000810
15 mL Falcon 管	BD Falcon	352196
蓝色尼龙网状细胞过滤器，40 &μ;m	BD Falcon	352340
抗人 CD19-APC	Biolegend	302212	克隆 HIB19
抗人 CD27-eFluor 450	eBioscience	48-0279-42	克隆 O323
抗人 CD38-PE-Cy7	Biolegend	303516	克隆 HIT2
抗人 CD38-PE-Cy7	BD Biosciences	560677	克隆 HIT2
抗人 CD45-FITC	Biolegend	304006	克隆 HI30
抗人 CD45-FITC	BD Biosciences	555482	克隆 HI30
抗小鼠/大鼠/人 CD27-PerCP Cy5.5	Biolegend	124213	克隆 LG.3A10
抗人 CD27-PerCP Cy5.5	BD Biosciences	65429	克隆 L128
抗人 CD19-FITC	Miltenyi Biotec	130-098-064	克隆 LT19
抗人 CD19-FITC	GeneTex	GTX75599	克隆 LT19
抗人 CD20-FITC	BD Biosciences 555622		克隆 2H7
生物素化的抗人 CD27	Biolegend	302804	克隆 O323
生物素化的抗人 CD27	eBioscience	13-0279-80	克隆 O323
7-氨基放线菌素 D （7-AAD）	BD Biosciences	559925
CpG （ODN 2006）	InvivoGen	tlrl-2006	B 型 CpG
重组人 IL-2	PeproTech	200-02
重组人 IL-10	PeproTech	200-10
重组人 IL-21	PeproTech	200-21
重组人 sCD40L	PeproTech	310-02
S. aureus Cowan （SAC）	蛋白 ASigma-Aldrich	82526
商陆有丝分裂原 （PWM）	Sigma-Aldrich	L9379
MultiScreen 滤板，0.45 µm 孔径	Merck Millipore	MSIPS4510	无菌、透明的 96 孔滤板，带疏水性 PVDF 膜
BCIP/NBT 溶液	Sigma-Aldrich	B6404
BCIP/NBT 单一试剂，碱性磷酸酶底物	Merck Millipore	ES006
人 IgG	Jackson ImmunoResearch	009-000-003
人 IgG，Fc 片段	JacksonImmunoResearch	009-000-008
F（ab'）2 山羊抗人 Ig 片段（IgG + IgM + IgA）	Jackson ImmunoResearch	109-006-127
山羊抗人 IgG-碱性磷酸酶，Fc&γ;片段特异性	Jackson ImmunoResearch	109-055-008
山羊抗人 IgM-碱性磷酸酶，Fcµ 片段特异性	JacksonImmunoResearch	109-055-043
山羊抗人 IgG-过氧化物酶，Fc&γ;片段特异性	Jackson ImmunoResearch	109-035-008
山羊抗人 IgM-过氧化物酶，Fcµ 片段特异性	Jackson ImmunoResearch	109-035-095
BD ELISPOT AEC底物试剂盒	BD Biosciences	551951
C.T.L. ImmunoSpot 分析仪	C.T.L.