方法文章

柏林亥姆霍兹中心晶体学片段筛选的工作流程与工具

DOI:

10.3791/62208

2021年3月3日

本文内容

摘要

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在柏林亥姆霍兹中心进行的晶体学片段筛选采用了一套标准化流程,包括专用化合物库、晶体处理工具、快速数据采集设备 以及高度自动化的数据分析。本方案旨在最大化此类实验的产出,为后续基于结构的配体设计提供有前景的起点。

摘要

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片段筛选是一种有助于确定配体设计有希望起点的技术。如果目标蛋白的晶体可得,并且能够稳定地表现出高分辨率X射线衍射特性,则晶体学是片段筛选中最受青睐的方法之一,因其具有高灵敏度。此外,该方法是唯一能够提供片段结合模式详细三维信息的方法,这对于后续的化合物理性优化至关重要。该方法的常规应用依赖于合适的片段库、专门用于处理大量样品的设备、先进的同步辐射光束线以实现快速衍射测量,以及在很大程度上自动化的结果分析解决方案。

本文介绍了在柏林亥姆霍兹中心(HZB)开展晶体学片段筛选(CFS)的完整实验流程及相关工具。在启动该流程之前,需优化晶体浸泡条件和数据收集策略,以确保晶体学实验的可重复性。随后,通常在一天至两天内,使用一个包含96种片段化合物的CFS专用文库(以预装干燥板形式提供),对192颗晶体进行浸泡处理,并逐一进行快速冷冻。最终的衍射实验可在HZB位于柏林阿德勒斯霍夫(德国)运营的BESSY  II电子储存环上的BL14.1和BL14.2光束线完成,这两条光束线支持机器人自动上样,通常一天内即可完成全部实验。晶体学数据处理、蛋白质结构精修及阳性片段的识别可通过专用服务器上的专业软件流程快速、高度自动化地完成,所需人工干预极少。

在HZB使用CFS工作流程可实现常规筛选实验。这有助于提高成功识别片段命中物的几率,从而为开发药理学或生物化学应用中的高效结合物提供起点。

引言

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药物开发的第一步是针对特定靶点进行化合物筛选。传统上,制药行业会使用包含约100,000至1,000,000 个条目的大型化合物库,通过高通量生化实验进行筛选。这一策略后来被基于片段的药物设计(FBDD)所补充,该方法在过去20年中迅速发展,因其具有多种内在优势,已成为生成高质量先导候选化合物的主流策略1。术语"片段”指的是一类较小的有机分子,通常含有少于20个非氢原子或重原子(HAs)。因此,片段显著小于常规高通量筛选中所研究的药物样或先导样分子(通常少于30个HAs)。片段具有较弱的结合亲和力。然而,与较大的分子相比,片段更具多样性,因为即使数量较少的片段集合也能更好地代表相应大小分子的化学空间2。此外,将片段筛选命中化合物优化为先导分子,比优化已经较大的分子更为高效2,3,4,5。这意味着,只要检测方法具备足够的灵敏度,片段筛选便可高效实施,并为后续化合物优化提供高质量的起点。可用于片段筛选的多种生物物理方法中,最常用的包括核磁共振(NMR)、X射线晶体学、表面等离子共振(SPR)和热迁移实验。这些方法可并行或依次使用,旨在提高对筛选结果的信心,并分别减少假阳性或假阴性结果的数量。然而,最近一项比较研究6表明,由于不同方法之间的结果重叠度较低,应避免采用依次进行的筛选级联策略。

X射线晶体学是一种成熟的原子级结构测定方法,但近年来也已发展成为一种筛选工具7,8。由于蛋白质晶体能够耐受高浓度的片段分子(例如,100 mM),晶体学片段筛选(CFS)在片段筛选中可与其他生物物理方法相竞争,甚至作为初筛方法更具优势6,9。然而,CFS的一个关键前提是必须具备经过验证的、可重复获得具有优良衍射分辨率(通常优于2 Å)晶体的目标蛋白结晶体系。

与所有其他片段筛选方法相比,CFS 的一个独特优势在于能够提供所识别片段结合模式的详细三维信息。这种结构信息对于将片段命中物合理优化为高亲和力结合物至关重要。目前成熟的片段优化策略包括片段的生长、合并和连接5。通过这些策略 ,可以从初始阶段保持较高的配体效率,避免引入不必要的或空间上不合适的基团,从而降低化学合成成本。总体而言,CFS 作为药物设计的起始策略具有无可比拟的优势。

鉴于某一特定生物靶标满足CFS在晶体质量方面的高要求,存在 是一些 最大化的主要因素 此类筛查活动取得成功结果的可能性。 这取决于所用片段库的质量、在衍射实验前高效完成实验操作的工作流程、具备足够自动化程度和数据采集速度的同步辐射光束线,以及实现大规模自动化数据处理与分析的方法和手段。本文介绍了从晶体浸泡实验到命中片段鉴定的完整工作流程,该流程已在中国台湾同步辐射研究中心BESSY的生物大分子晶体学光束线上成功建立。 II图1)。该设施向学术界和工业界用户开放合作。此外,欧盟国家的学术用户 德国以外的申请人可直接通过iNEXT Discovery项目申请资助。

要启动CFS实验并实施本工作中所述的方案,必须满足若干不可或缺的先决条件:已获得能够大量重复生长、在常温下稳定、且使用不含高挥发性成分的 结晶鸡尾酒溶液制备的目标蛋白晶体,并且这些晶体具有良好的衍射能力。另一个先决条件是晶体晶格必须适用于该实验。在合适的晶格中,目标蛋白的感兴趣位点必须朝向溶剂通道,从而 可被接触。此外,为确保CFS实验流程的成功,建议在实验前进行可选但极为重要的一步:优化浸泡条件。关键的评估指标包括晶体的衍射能力以及在数据标定过程中确定的相关数据质量参数。通常需要优化的因素包括DMSO耐受性、缓冲液浓度 和冷冻保护剂的使用。尽管下文将详细说明DMSO作为共溶剂并非严格必需,但它有助于提高片段的溶解度。典型的测试应包括在过夜条件下分别使用0、3、6或10%(v/v)的DMSO进行浸泡。将缓冲液浓度提高至200或300 mM有助于防止因使用高浓度片段而可能引起的pH偏移,从而避免晶体衍射质量下降。最后,至关重要的是确定是否需要额外添加冷冻保护剂、具体使用哪种保护剂,以及是否 可将其预先加入浸泡条件中。然而在许多情况下,并不需要额外添加冷冻保护剂,因为DMSO本身即可充当冷冻保护剂。若如此,将在最终实验中节省一个操作步骤。大多数晶体在使用尺寸合适的环状载具进行快速冷冻时,所需冷冻保护剂更少,同时应尽可能减少或避免母液的残留。但在极少数情况下,保留一层母液确实有助于防止晶体在快速冷冻过程中受损。

在CFS实验中获得的命中数不仅取决于靶蛋白的可成药性以及晶体晶格的适用性(见上文),还取决于文库的质量。文库质量包含两个方面:化合物的筛选以及化合物的配制方式(即化合物在实验中所呈现的物理形态)。在化合物筛选方面 ,可采用多种策略。大多数文库设计均旨在最大化片段的化学多样性。一种策略性重点是考虑片段在后续设计中的化学可改造性,例如Diamond-SGC-iNEXT 文库中所采用的 策略 10。另一种文库设计策略则是通过基于形状和药效团的聚类方法,最大化商业可得片段化学空间的代表性,HZB开发的F2X文库即为此类策略的范例11。更具体而言,HZB已开发出包含1103个成员的F2X-Universal文库,以及用于初步CFS实验的96个化合物代表性子集,后者称为F2X-Entry Screen,并已成功完成验证11。F2X-Entry Screen是HZB开展CFS实验的首选文库。随后,可进一步使用F2X-Universal文库或包含1056个成员的EU-OPENSCREEN片段文库12开展更大规模的实验,后者同样在HZB提供。目前,这些文库可由柏林BESSY II同步辐射装置的生物大分子晶体学光束线用户在合作合同基础上免费使用。该政策同样适用于通过iNEXT Discovery提案申请的用户。此外,F2X-Entry Screen还可根据材料转移协议向所有感兴趣的科研人员提供。

就文库的物理呈现形式而言,通常采用两种方法:片段以DMSO储备溶液形式使用,或片段经干燥后固定于即用型板上。在HZB,F2X-Entry筛选库以及F2X-通用文库中的非挥发性化合物均以干燥形式固定于3透镜96孔MRC低剖面结晶板中。将片段固定于结晶板中具有两个关键优势:首先,可将筛选板运输至用户所在实验室,因此本文所述工作流程中的浸泡与晶体操作步骤(步骤1-3)可在任意地点进行;其次,可使用无DMSO溶液,从而便于对DMSO敏感的靶标进行筛选,并基本保持预期的命中率11。然而,DMSO确实能提高片段的溶解度,因此 如上所述,值得事先检测所选晶体系统对DMSO的耐受性。

以下方案将描述一个典型的96种化合物筛选实验,例如F2X-Entry筛选。为此,需要及时制备约250颗晶体,并确保其新鲜使用。强烈建议对全部96种化合物各制备两份浸泡样本。此外,可选地建议制备额外的对照浸泡样本,以便后续利用泛数据密度分析(PanDDA)方法进行数据分析以识别阳性结果13。对照浸泡是指在蛋白晶体上进行的浸泡实验,所用浸泡溶液和孵育时间与片段浸泡相同,但 不含任何片段分子。如果浸泡溶液与结晶条件相同,则可直接从结晶板中收获晶体。

根据机器人样品更换器的功能,可能需要使用不同的样品托盘格式。目前,HZB 运行的 BL14.1 光束线样品需采用 Unipuck 格式制备,HZB 运行的 BL14.2 光束线样品需采用 SPINE 托盘格式制备。本方案假设采用 Unipuck 格式进行样品制备。

方案

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1.Soaking crystals

  1. Take the screening plate (here, an F2X-Entry Screen plate, Figure 2) from the -20 °C freezer and place it onto the bench/table for about 30 min to pre-warm it to room temperature, thus avoiding condensation moisture.
  2. Arrange the working place with two closely arranged microscopes and all tools needed (Figure 3A). The materials are listed in the Table of Materials.
  3. Choose 3-4 loops of the appropriate size for transfer of the crystals to be soaked and place them close to the microscopes.
  4. Fill the glass spot plate cavities with de-ionized or distilled water.
  5. Prepare 5 mL of soaking solution.
  6. Cut open the bag of the screening plate pre-warmed to room temperature.
  7. Remove the lid and the foil from the screening plate, while keeping the plate placed on the bench/table. 
  8. Decant the 5 mL of soaking solution in the reagent reservoir.
  9. Fill each of the 96 reservoirs with 40 µL of soaking solution using the 12-channel pipette.
  10. Place the EasyAccess Frame on top of the screening plate and secure it with the included clamps by sliding them onto the left and right side of the device.
    NOTE: The EasyAccess Frame is a special device for handling multiple crystals, which was developed at the HZB14. It enables easy access to each well by shifting the movable tiles while protecting the other wells from evaporation.
  11. Place the screening plate (incl. the EasyAccess Frame) under the first microscope and the crystallization plate including the crystals to be soaked under the second microscope.
  12. Slide open well A1 of the screening plate by moving the respective acrylic glass tile of the EasyAccess Frame either with a finger or the supplied pen tool. 
  13. Add 0.4 µL of soaking solution from the reservoir to the fragment containing well (upper left lens) using a fresh pipette tip. Check through the microscope that the drop covers the dried-on fragment, so it can dissolve.
    NOTE: Alternatively, this step can be carried out using a pipetting robot before the assembly of the EasyAccess Frame. This way the soaking drops of all wells could be placed in one automatic procedure. However, the authors recommend adding the soaking solution directly before the soaking step as described to ensure that the fragment solubilizes slowly and in the presence of the crystal. This avoids that the crystal experiences a sudden shock upon transfer to a drop with a high fragment concentration.
  14. Under the second microscope, cut open the sealing foil of the crystallization plate at one of the wells that contains the target crystals.
  15. Transfer two crystals using an appropriately sized loop mounted on the crystal wand to the well A1 of the screening plate under the first microscope.
  16. Wash the loop in the prepared glass spot plate and dry it by gently touching the tissue. Do this after every transfer to avoid cross contamination with fragment containing soaking solutions.
  17. Use the microscope to check that the crystals have been properly placed.
  18. Move on to the next well (e.g., B1).
  19. Repeat steps 1.13-1.18 with all 96 wells of the screening plate until each soaking drop contains two crystals.
  20. Remove the screening plate (incl. the EasyAccess Frame) from under the microscope and place it onto the bench/table.
  21. Remove the EasyAccess Frame from the screening plate.
  22. Seal the screening plate with sealing foil and place it in the crystallization incubator or cupboard, respectively, where the crystals were grown.
  23. Incubate for the optimized soaking time. Overnight is usually convenient.
  24. (optional) Preparation of approximately 40 apo crystals (i.e., mock soaking)
    1. Take an MRC 3-lens 96-well low-profile crystallization plate and fill two columns with 40 µL of soaking solution per well using the 12-channel pipette.
    2. Place the EasyAccess Frame on top of the crystallization plate and secure it with the included clamps by sliding them onto the left and right side of the device.
    3. Slide open the acrylic glass tile of well A1.
    4. Place 0.4 µL of soaking solution in each of the two left lenses of the well.
    5. Transfer 2-3 crystals to each drop. After each transfer, wash the loop in the prepared glass spot plate and dry by gently touching the tissue.
    6. Move to the next well (e.g., B1).
    7. Repeat steps 1.24.4-1.24.6 until about 40 crystals are ready for incubation.
    8. Remove the crystallization plate (incl. EasyAccess Frame) from under the microscope onto the bench/table and remove the EasyAccess Frame.
    9. Seal the crystallization plate with sealing foil and place it in the aforementioned crystallization incubator or cupboard.
    10. Incubate for the same time as the screening plate.

2.Harvesting crystals

  1. Take out the incubating plate(s) from the incubator or cupboard, respectively.
  2. Arrange the working place with one microscope and all tools needed (Figure 3B). The materials are listed in the Table of Materials.
  3. Prepare a Unipuck foam dewar with 3 Unipuck lids (i.e., sample enclosures) and fill it with liquid nitrogen (LN2).
    NOTE: Observe the appropriate safety precautions for working with LN2 (i.e., wear safety goggles and use suitable protective equipment). It is best to get fresh LN2 several times during the session in order to avoid water condensation in the LN2 storage can. Through the entire following procedure, make sure the LN2 level in the foam dewar is always reaching the upper edge of the dewar. Also ensure that the LN2 is ice-free; frequently replace the LN2 (e.g., once every 45 min), or latest if ice starts to accumulate. Then, fill the second foam dewar and transfer Unipucks to it. Empty the icy foam dewar and remove residual ice and moisture with the blow dryer.
  4. Remove the foil from the screening plate and place the EasyAccess Frame on top.
  5. Slide open well A1.
  6. Harvest two crystals from the drop and flash-cool them in LN2 (one by one) by plunging with a fast vertical movement into the LN2 and then inserting the sample in the proper puck position. Take relevant notes on the sample tracking sheet.
  7. Cryoprotection step (if necessary for the target crystals). In such case, perform this step instead of 2.6.
    1. Place 0.4 µL of soaking solution including cryo-protectant on the lower left lens of the well.
    2. Pull the loop with a crystal mounted from the drop in the upper left lens slowly through the solution in the lower left lens while keeping the crystal in the loop, and then flash-cool in LN2. Harvest two crystals in this way.
      NOTE: In steps 2.6 and 2.7, make sure that the time the crystal is in the loop and exposed to air is kept very short. The plunging (i.e., the vertical drop of the sample in the LN2-filled dewar) should be performed as fast as possible. This ensures high sample quality and prevention of ice rings in the data. Track the samples (i.e., note if crystals have damages, etc.) to prioritize either duplicate for the following X-ray measurements, use the template for that. Even if crystals have cracks, “hairs” or other defects due to the soaking, they can still be used and should always be harvested. In case crystals broke into several pieces, two of the biggest/best looking pieces should be harvested. Figure 5 shows some examples of how such crystals can look like. All the shown crystals gave still useful datasets in the respective campaign11, underlining that it is worth to harvest crystals after soaking treatment, even if substantial morphologic changes occurred.
  8. Go to the next well and repeat steps 2.5 - 2.6./2.7 until all three pucks are filled.
  9. Add the Unipuck bases on top of the lids after pre-cooling them in LN2.
  10. Store the Unipucks in storage racks in a transport dewar or storage dewar.
  11. Repeat the preceding steps until all the wells of the screening plate have been processed.
  12. (optional) If mock-soaked crystals were prepared, harvest them in a similar fashion as described beforehand.
    NOTE: If two crystals for each of the 96 conditions of the screening plate could be flash-cooled, there will be space for 32 mock-soaked apo crystals, to fill up the 14 Unipucks.
  13. Store the Unipucks in LN2 until the measurement.

3.Data collection 

  1. Transfer the Unipucks to beamline BL14.1. If SPINE pucks have been used in step 2, transfer them to beamline BL14.2.
  2. Carry out standard measurements on the beamline using the specific recommendations given below. Details about the facility and the experiment control program MXCuBE2 have been presented previously15,16. Figure 4 shows the interior of the experimental hutches of beamlines BL14.1 and BL14.2 as well as an example screenshot of the MXCuBE2 control software at beamline BL14.1.
    1. To maximize time efficiency and throughput, skip the collection of test images. The sample-to-detector distance will be fixed to a value that is suitable for the upper resolution limit of the crystal system determined in earlier experiments. If the data collection strategy was not optimized beforehand, collect 1800 images of 0.2 degrees each with an exposure time of 0.1 s per image. 
    2. Ideally, test the data collection strategy in prior experiments using mock-soaked apo crystals. For higher symmetry space groups, 1200 images or even 900 images (i.e., 240° or 180°, respectively) will already give complete datasets with good statistics, independent of the starting angle of data collection. 
      NOTE: Higher redundancy and finer slicing can yield superior data quality17. However, using this “enough but not more” strategy proposed here is an excellent trade-off between quality, data collection time, as well as computational requirements for analysis later on. In the described way, 200 data collections in 24 hours are well possible at beamlines BL14.1 and BL14.2. Nevertheless, samples should be prioritized.
    3. First collect diffraction datasets for one sample per fragment condition, based on the prioritization in step 2.6./2.7 (i.e., collect the data for the higher prioritized duplicate).
    4. For those experiments in 3.2.3 where data collection failed, diffraction was lost or severe ice rings occurred, collect data for the second duplicate sample of the respective fragment condition.
    5. Collect diffraction datasets of apo crystals (if prepared according to steps 1.24 and 2.12).
    6. Collect diffraction datasets of the remaining duplicates of each fragment condition. 
    7. In the MXCuBE2 program, match the dataset identifiers of a CFS campaign to the following pattern: <protein>-<library>-[ABCDEFGH][01][0123456789][ab] (e.g., MyProtein-F2XEntry-B05a, where “B05” stands for the well (i.e., the fragment condition in the screen) and the following “a” for the first duplicate.)

4.Data treatment

  1. For data analysis of the CFS campaign, use FragMAXapp, a web-based solution to control a multiplex analysis for processing auto-refinement and PanDDA hit evaluation of CFS data18 (Lima et al. FragMAXapp, unpublished data). In the FragMAXapp version deployed at HZB the following programs/pipelines are available: XDSAPP19, Xia2-DIALS and Xia2-XDS20, fspipeline7, DIMPLE21, Phenix LigFit22, PanDDA13,23. Use a well refined input model of the target protein as input for automatic refinement; otherwise perform meticulous refinement of one high resolution mock-soaked crystal that was collected during the campaign. 
    NOTE: A key element for hit identification is PanDDA. Details are explained in the respective publications13,23. In brief, PanDDA automatically calculates electron density maps of a set of data sets in a CFS campaign. These are then assumed as non-binding fragment conditions and averaged to generate the so-called ground state model. The ground state model is then used to derive local discrepancies between each electron density map and the ground state map, using voxel-associated Z-scores. Then, for areas of high Z-scores a so called PanDDA-map is created by fine-tuned subtraction of ground state density from the respective map. This largely enhances the visibility of fragment binding events.
  2. To maximize the outcome of PanDDA, use a two-step approach. Firstly, performing a PanDDA run (pandda.analyse) with standard settings. Even if mock-soaked crystals have been collected, their identity will not be included as a parameter (which is possible nonetheless) in order to enable an unbiased generation of the ground state model by PanDDA from all available data. Afterwards, the output data is evaluated by the user via a so-called PanDDA inspection in Coot24. Here, hits with relatively high confidence should be noted, concluding the first step.
  3. Secondly, re-run the pandda.analyse step excluding the preliminary hits (determined in the first step) from the ground state model via the --exclude_from_characterisation="<list-of-bound-dataset-ids>" command line option. Further details are described on the PanDDA help pages (https://pandda.bitbucket.io/). This way, datasets that are clear hits and thus would obscure the ground state model if included are disregarded. This leads to an improved ground state model and thus to improved results overall. Finally, a thorough PanDDA inspection is performed to complete the hit identification.
    NOTE: FragMAXapp includes also an output option to save the modeled bound states or prepare data for PDB submission, for further detail see FragMAX webpages (https://fragmax.github.io/).

结果

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作为此前报道的 F2X-Entry 筛选板验证实验11 的一部分,其中三次实验在 MAX IV 的 BioMAX 光束线开展,另一次实验在 HZB 的 BL14.1 光束线开展。在后者开展的实验中,针对酵母 Aar2 与酵母 Prp8 的 RNaseH 样结构域(AR)形成的蛋白-蛋白复合物,采用了一组特定的 F2X-Entry 筛选板条件,其浸泡条件不含 DMSO。所选的这组条件包含了此前在含 DMSO 的浸泡条件下对 AR 进行 F2X-Entry 筛选板实验时发现的阳性结合片段11(即在 HZB 开展的此次实验中,这些阳性片段在无 DMSO 条件下被重新筛选)。图 7 展示了使用 FragMAXapp 流程分析数据后获得的阳性结果概览,该流程包括采用 XDSAPP 进行数据处理、fspipeline 进行自动精修,以及后续使用 PanDDA 进行阳性片段识别。

蛋白质晶体学片段筛选工作流程图、文库选择、数据分析。
图1:聚焦于德国亥姆霍兹柏林中心特殊实验环境的晶体学片段筛选(CFS)实验工作流程示意图。 请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

蛋白质筛选的结晶板设置;透明孔便于样品观察。
图2:F2X-Entry筛选试剂盒的配方与包装。 该96种化合物筛选试剂盒采用3镜头96孔MRC低剖面板,用箔膜密封并真空包装。每个孔的三个镜头中的两个镜头内,含有从DMSO溶液中干燥而成的96种筛选化合物。请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。

用于细胞分析和样品制备的培养皿和移液器显微镜装置。
图3:HZB制备实验室中CFS工作台的实景照片。 图中展示了A)浸泡和B)晶体收获所需工具的装配情况。请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。

用于光学激发的机器人光谱装置;显微图像及分析软件界面。
图 4:数据采集终端站与控制软件。  A) HZB-MX 光束线 BL14.1(左)和 BL14.2(右)实验站的实景照片15B) 在 BL14.1 上用于衍射数据采集的 MXCuBE2 实验控制界面截图16,BL14.2 使用非常相似的界面。 请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

微流控芯片显微镜;用于晶体材料光学分析的实验装置。
图5:数据采集前低温环境下部分晶体样品的摄影快照。 本图展示了进行片段浸泡和晶体收获后晶体形态的多样性。这些照片是在瑞典隆德的MAX IV同步辐射光源BioMAX光束线上拍摄的,用于在此处收集的AR样品,作为F2X-Entry筛选验证的一部分11请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

ARwoDMSO 软件界面,结构精修的数据分析流程,配体拟合过程。
图6:在HZB安装的FragMaxApp18软件界面截图,用于便捷的数据分析。 更多细节见Lima等,FragMAXapp,未发表数据。 请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

用于药物设计的Aar2和RNaseH蛋白结构图,其中片段命中区域已突出显示。
图7:CFS项目F2X-Entry针对AR(不含DMSO)筛选结果概览。 AR蛋白复合物以卡通形式展示,其中Aar2以灰色表示,Prp8的RNaseH样结构域以蓝色表示。筛选中获得的片段命中分子以元素颜色着色(C - 黄色,O - 红色,N - 蓝色,S - 橙色,Cl - 浅青色)。请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。


样本追踪表模板。 请点击此处下载该文件。

讨论

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要成功开展CFS实验,必须严格遵守所述的先决条件(参见引言)。需要一个可靠的结晶系统,以可重复地生长出大量衍射质量良好的晶体;同时,需要一个经过良好优化的结构作为自动化精修所需的输入脱辅基模型(apo model)。此外,必须确认目标蛋白位点(如活性位点或界面区域)在晶体晶格中对片段分子是可及的。预先优化浸泡条件也至关重要,以确保浸泡过程不会显著降低晶体质量。忽视这些因素极可能导致实验结果不理想,其应用价值将非常有限,最坏情况下甚至需要重复整个实验。 

上述方案概述了标准片段筛选(CFS)实验过程中所遵循的操作步骤。如果所有先决条件均满足,至少90%的浸泡晶体应在衍射实验中显示出高分辨率衍射数据。若未达到此效果,可将浸泡时间缩短至数小时甚至数分钟。由于大多数片段具有良好的溶解性,这通常足以获得理想的占据率数值。此外,一次典型的CFS实验通常可获得约10%或更高的命中率。在F2X-Entry Screen验证实验11以及使用相同文库的持续用户实验中,已观察到更高的命中率(20%及以上,数据未显示)。 

晶体学片段筛选的一个普遍局限性在于晶体接触位点的存在。这些位点可能遮蔽目标结合位点 先验的 已知的活性位点(在筛选前需进行检查,见上文),这些接触位点也常常形成片段可结合的口袋和热点。此类片段命中结果可能是晶体晶格的人工假象,很可能在溶液中并不与蛋白质结合。这类情况在浸泡实验中比共结晶实验中更常见(可能由于浸泡实验中使用的片段浓度较高)。然而,根据以往经验,它们通常仅占所获得命中结果的一小部分。例如,在使用内切蛋白酶(EP)和剪接体蛋白-蛋白复合物Prp进行的F2X-Entry筛选验证实验中8RNaseH 以及Aar2(AR),大多数命中位点出现在有希望的位点11对于EP,37个观察到的结合事件中有27个位于活性位点(即该蛋白酶的肽结合裂隙)。其余10个远端结合事件包括两个溶剂暴露表面的结合事件和八个晶体接触结合事件(对应五个独特命中)。排除这些晶体接触命中后,EP筛选实验的整体独特命中率仍为24%。还需注意的是,远离已知活性位点的结合事件(晶体接触结合除外)也可能具有潜在意义(例如揭示蛋白新的热点区域或变构位点)。在同一项研究报道的AR筛选实验中,23个观察到的结合事件里,有7个位于晶体接触界面,1个位于两个蛋白的直接相互作用界面,7个位于已知的蛋白质-蛋白质相互作用位点(这些位点在剪接体更大生物学背景中与其他结合伙伴相互作用,对应剪接体的不同组装阶段),另有8个结合事件揭示了AR上两个功能尚未明确的热点区域,其中一个位于Prp8的溶剂暴露表面。RnaseH因此,排除晶体接触处的事件以及Prp8RnaseH 单例情况下,潜在有用的结合事件数量为15(对应14个独特命中),因此命中率为15.6%。这些命中可作为设计蛋白-蛋白相互作用调节剂的起点,或作为探针化合物用于探索所发现的两个Aar2热点区域。综上所述,结合已开展的用户调研结果,晶体学片段筛选中通常仅有少量命中需被视为假象而舍弃。然而,这一比例在很大程度上取决于具体靶标。

如果命中率显著偏低,可能表明与靶标蛋白相关的以下问题之一。例如,在针对一种病毒半胱氨酸蛋白酶的CFS筛选中,仅观察到3%的命中率(数据未显示)。结果发现,所使用的蛋白可能在其活性位点发生了化学修饰。在这种情况下,更换不同的蛋白制备方式可能解决该问题。如果晶体对DMSO极度敏感,F2X-Entry筛选也可在不含DMSO的条件下进行,尽管结果可能在一定程度上有所不同。在含有DMSO时获得的大多数命中化合物在无DMSO时仍会出现;但也有一些化合物仅在含有DMSO时可被检测到,而在无DMSO时无法观察到;最后,还可能存在仅在无DMSO条件下才出现的少数化合物。

当蛋白质在结合配体时发生诱导契合运动时,会出现最严重的问题。晶体晶格很可能无法耐受蛋白质的构象变化,从而导致晶体解体。在这种情况下,唯一的选择是采用蛋白质与片段共结晶的方法。然而,这可能导致形成新的晶体形式。因此,整个流程的大部分自动化操作将不再能高效运行。幸运的是,到目前为止,在HZB开展的大多数CFS项目中,尚未遇到此类问题。这可能是因为片段的弱结合无法提供足够的能量来诱导蛋白质发生构象变化,特别是当晶体中的构象受到晶格堆积力稳定时。

作者迄今为止遇到的该方法另一个严重局限是,当结晶液(从而浸泡溶液)含有挥发性化合物时,几乎无法以有意义的方式完成所有晶体操作。

不同的蛋白质在不同程度上可能含有可成药的位点。例如,蛋白质-蛋白质相互作用通常由大面积的平坦表面介导,这类表面较难作为靶点。因此,片段结合的命中率可能取决于蛋白质分子表面的结构。在极端情况下,某些蛋白质可能不含有任何适合作为片段结合靶点的表面热点。因此,即使实验操作极为严谨,筛选过程也可能不会产生任何片段命中结果。然而,作者至今尚未遇到过这种情况。

原则上,根据上述方案,CFS 实验中的晶体浸泡和收获步骤可以在任何具备晶体操作条件的实验室中进行。这使得柏林亥姆霍兹中心(HZB)的方法与其他 CFS 设施有所不同,并在某些情况下具有优势。例如,当晶体难以在其他地点重新制备,或实验人员的出行受到限制时(如在全球性大流行病期间),HZB 的用户因此可获得全套设备(样品托盘、工具、EasyAccess 框架、样品架等),以便携带使用。

然而,大量样品架和低温存储空间的需求在专用的CFS设施中仍能更方便地得到满足。此外,由于需要收集大量衍射数据集,因此有必要将这些设施就近设置在专为高通量样品处理设计的光束线上。此类设施的实例包括位于英国Diamond Light Source的I04-1光束线及其关联的XChem设施8,25、法国ESRF的MASSIF光束线26,以及瑞典MAX IV同步辐射光源BioMAX光束线上的FragMAX设施18

未来,有望设计出完全无需晶体操作的CFS实验。目前在此方向上已有一些初步进展。例如,通过声波液体转移技术,可在网格型样品载体上直接混合含晶体溶液与片段溶液27。另一种方法被用于基于XFEL的配体筛选:在一项原理验证实验中,批量制备晶体悬浊液,并在硅基固定靶芯片上完成浸泡及衍射数据收集28。然而,这些方法仍处于开发阶段,距离广泛适用于多种蛋白质靶标,或在CFS设施中作为常规手段应用,尚有较大差距。

本文详细阐述了在HZB(及其他机构)顺利开展CFS实验活动的具体操作步骤,并提供了准备和实施此类实验的通用指导以及实用的操作技巧,有助于显著提高实验成功率。最终,提升CFS筛选的成功概率和效率,将为后续工具化合物或候选药物的开发高效地提供起始点。

披露

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关于EasyAccess框架的专利申请已由柏林亥姆霍兹中心向德国专利商标局提交,注册号为DE 10 2018 111 478.8。此外,还通过PCT途径基于该德国专利的优先权提交了国际专利申请。

致谢

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我们感谢众多用户团队在HZB开展的CFS实验活动。他们的反馈推动了我们工作流程的逐步改进。我们特别感谢马尔堡大学的药物设计团队以及MAX IV的FragMAX团队,这些紧密的合作为CFS技术的多次重要发展奠定了基础。我们感谢德国联邦教育与研究部(BMBF)通过Frag2Xtal和Frag4Lead项目(编号05K13M1和05K16M1)提供的支持。此外,我们还衷心感谢iNEXT-Discovery项目(项目编号871037)的支持,该项目由欧洲委员会的“地平线2020”计划资助。

材料

本文使用的材料清单
姓名公司目录编号评论
1 µL 移液器EppendorfEP3123000012
12通道移液器,100 µLEppendorfEP4861000791
吹风机TH-Geyer9.106 788
含晶体的结晶板含有待浸泡的晶体
结晶培养箱为结晶实验提供恒定温度,HZB处为20°C
不同孔径尺寸的双厚度MicroLoops(LD)MiTeGen多种,例如
M5-L18SP-75LD
本方案需要适量尺寸的250个loop,可由HZB提供 
EasyAccess支架HZBEasyAccess支架是一种用于处理多个晶体的专用装置,由HZB开发(Barthel等,2021)。
F2X-Entry筛选板HZB开发的F2X-Entry筛选剂(Wollenhaupt等,2020)
玻璃点样板VWRMARI1406506
液氮至少一满5 L罐
液氮储存罐n.a.n.a.
磁性取晶棒MiTeGenM-R-1013198
显微镜Leican.a.
MRC 3镜头96孔低剖面结晶板SwissCI3W96TLP-UVP用于模拟浸泡晶体(可选)
试剂储液槽Carl RothEKT6.125 ml容量
样品追踪模板https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62208/TemplateCFSHZBSampleTracking.
xlsx
手术刀B. BraunBA825SU
微孔板密封膜GreinerBioOne676070
带槽式提手的Unipuck运输杆(适用于Unipuck)MiTeGenM-CP-111-0652根铝制提杆;可由HZB提供
浸泡溶液 至少需要5 ml
含冷冻保护剂的浸泡溶液,150µL仅当浸泡溶液本身不含冷冻保护剂时才需要
擦拭纸巾 Roth(Kimberly Clark Professional)AA64.1
运输用杜瓦瓶(Whartington干式运输罐)MiTeGenTW-CX1002个运输杜瓦瓶,用于存放2根Unipuck提杆;也可使用VHC35型或类似型号的储存杜瓦瓶。
带盖Unipuck泡沫杜瓦瓶MiTeGenM-CP-111-022两个特别适用于本方案所述Unipuck操作的泡沫杜瓦瓶
若使用SPINE puck,则可能需要采用不同的泡沫杜瓦瓶。
Unipuck初学者套装MiTeGenM-CP-UPSK001可由HZB提供
Unipuck样品托MiTeGenM-CP-111-02114个Unipuck;可由HZB提供

参考文献

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