方法文章

锂离子电池中分解机制的识别与量化;用于热失控建模的热流模拟输入

DOI:

10.3791/62376

2022年3月7日

本文内容

摘要

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本研究旨在确定锂离子电池正极和负极材料在热失控(TR)过程中的反应动力学。采用同步热分析(STA)/傅里叶变换红外(FTIR)光谱仪/气相色谱质谱联用(GC-MS)技术,揭示热事件并检测释放出的气体。

摘要

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锂离子电池在正常使用过程中存在的风险及可能发生的事故仍是一个严重问题。为了更好地理解热失控(TR)现象,本研究采用同步热分析(STA)/气相色谱-质谱联用(GC-MS)/傅里叶变换红外光谱(FTIR)系统,对负极和正极中的放热分解反应进行了研究。这些技术通过分析释放出的气体种类、释放热量的多少以及质量损失,实现了对各电极中反应机理的识别。所得结果揭示了在比以往已发表模型更宽的温度范围内发生的热事件,从而有助于建立更精确的热失控热力学模型。本研究针对锂镍锰钴氧化物(NMC (111))-石墨电池单体中每种主要放热过程,在材料层面上测定了反应热、活化能和频率因子(即热力学三参数),并对结果进行了分析,推导出其反应动力学参数。这些数据可用于成功模拟实验中的热流行为。

引言

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The need of decarbonizing the economy combined with increasing energy demands ─ resulting from socio-economic developments and from climate change ─ requires a major shift in the energy system to address challenges posed by global warming and fuel shortage1,2. Clean energy technologies such as wind energy and solar energy are regarded as best alternatives to a fossil-fuel dominated energy system3; however, they are intermittent and the storage of energy will help to ensure continuity of energy supply. Properties such as high specific energy density, stable cycling performance and efficiency make lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) promising candidates as electrochemical energy storage system. The cost and the lack of reliable operation of LIBs may hamper a wider application in the power grid, in the form of large stationary battery system4,5. An additional aspect to consider is that the combination of high energetic materials with flammable organic solvent-based electrolytes can lead to hazardous conditions such as fire, release of toxic gases and explosion6,7. Therefore, one must address safety issues in LIBs.

Since early commercialization, a number of accidents in current applications (portable electronic devices, electric cars, and auxiliary power unit in aircraft) were reported in the news8,9. For instance, despite high quality production, the Sony laptop batteries incident10, the two Boeing 787 incidents11,12, Samsung Galaxy Notes 7 incidents13 are assumed to happen by internal short circuits in a cell. Tests have been developed to assess safety hazards14,15,16,17. Overcharge, over-discharge, external heating, mechanical abuse and internal/external short-circuit are failure mechanisms that are known to trigger thermal runaway (TR)18 and have been included in some standards and regulations. During this process, a series of exothermic reactions occur causing a drastic and rapid increase in temperature. When the heat generated cannot be dissipated fast enough, this condition develops into a TR19,20. Additionally, a single cell can then generate sufficient heat to trigger the neighboring cells, within a module or within a pack assembly, into TR; creating a thermal propagation (TP) event. Mitigation strategies such as increasing cell spacing in a module, the use of insulation materials and a specific style of cell interconnecting tab have all proven to curb the propagation phenomenon21. Also, the electrolyte stability and the structure stability of various cathode materials in the presence of electrolyte, at elevated temperature, have been investigated in order to reduce the likelihood of TR22.

Juarez-Robles et al. showed the combined effects of the degradation mechanisms from long-term cycling and over-discharge on LIB cells23. Depending on the severity of the discharge, phenomena like Li plating, cathode particle cracking, dissolution of Cu current collector, cathode particle disintegration, formation of Cu and Li bridges were reported as the main degradation mechanisms observed in these tests. Furthermore, they studied the combined effect resulting from aging and overcharge on a LIB cell to shed light on the degradation mechanisms24. Due to the extent of the overcharge regime, degradation behaviors observed for the cell were capacity fade, electrolyte decomposition, Li plating, delamination of active material, particle cracking and production of gases. These combined abuse conditions may cause the active materials to undergo exothermic reactions that can generate sufficient heat to initiate thermal runaway.

To avoid safety-related problems, lithium-ion batteries have to pass several tests defined in various standards and regulations14. However, variety in cell designs (pouch, prismatic, cylindrical), applicability of tests limited to a certain level (cell, module, pack), different evaluation and acceptance criteria defined, highlight the need to unify guidelines and safety requirements in standards and regulations25,26,27. A reliable, reproducible and controllable methodology, with uniform test conditions to trigger an internal short circuit (ISC) with subsequent TR, along with uniform evaluation criteria, is still under development28. Furthermore, there is not a single agreed protocol to assess the risks associated with the occurrence of TP in a battery during normal operation20,25.

In order to establish a testing protocol that simulates a realistic field failure scenario, a massive number of input parameter combinations (e.g., design parameters of the cell such as capacity, surface to volume ratio, thickness of the electrodes, ISC triggering method, location, etc.) need to be investigated experimentally to determine the best way to trigger TR induced by internal short circuit. This requires prohibitive lab efforts and costs. An alternative approach consists of the use of modeling and simulation to design a suitable triggering method. Nonetheless, 3D-thermal modeling of batteries can be prohibitively computationally expensive, considering the number of assessments needed to cover the effect of all possible combinations of parameters potentially governing TR induced by an internal short circuit.

In the literature, thermal decomposition models have been developed to simulate electrochemical reactions and thermal response of different types of lithium-ion batteries under various abuse conditions, such as nail penetration29, overcharge30, or conventional oven test31. In an effort to understand the cathode material stability, Parmananda et al. compiled experimental data of accelerating rate calorimeter (ARC) from the literature32. They have extracted kinetic parameters from these data, developed a model to simulate the calorimetric experiment and use these kinetic parameters for thermal stability prediction of a range of cathode materials32.

In references29,30,31 and numerous other studies, a combination of the same models33,34,35,36 ─ describing respectively; heat release from decomposition of anode and solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer; decomposition of cathode and decomposition of electrolyte ─ has been used repeatedly during several years as the basis for modeling thermal runaway. The latter has also been improved over time, for instance, by adding venting conditions37. However, this series of model was initially developed to capture the onset temperature of a TR and not for modeling thermal runaway severity.

Since thermal runaway is an uncontrolled thermal decomposition of battery components, it is of utmost importance to identify the decomposition reactions in anode and cathode to be able to design safer Li-ion batteries cells and more accurate testing methodologies. To this purpose, the goal of this study is the investigation of thermal decomposition mechanisms in NMC (111) cathode and graphite anode for the development of a simplified yet sufficiently accurate reaction kinetic model, which can be used in simulation of TR.

Here, we propose the use of coupled analytical equipment: Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) in a single simultaneous thermal analysis (STA) instrument. This equipment is coupled to the gas analysis system, which consists of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The hyphenated STA/FTIR/GC-MS techniques will allow us to acquire a better understanding of the causes and processes of thermal runaway in a single cell. Moreover, this will help to identify thermal decomposition processes. Hyphenation refers to the online combination of different analytical techniques.

The set-up of this custom-made integrated system is shown in Figure 1. The STA equipment, used in the present study, is located inside a glovebox, which guarantees the handling of components in a protective atmosphere. The latter is coupled with the FTIR and GC-MS via heated transfer lines (150 °C) to avoid the condensation of evaporated materials along the lines. The hyphenation of these analytical techniques allows simultaneous study of thermal properties and identification of released gases, providing information of the mechanisms of the thermally induced decomposition reactions. In order to further reduce the impact of unwanted chemical reactions in the electrodes during sample preparation, sample handling and sample loading are performed inside an argon-filled glove box. The disassembled electrodes are not rinsed nor any additional electrolytes are added to the crucible.

STA allows for the identification of phase transitions during the heating process, along with accurate determination of temperatures and enthalpies associated with these phase transitions, including those without mass change. The combination of on-line FTIR and GC-MS methods with the STA provides a qualitative assessment of gases evolved from the sample during its thermal decomposition. This is the key in identifying thermally induced reaction mechanisms. Indeed, STA/FTIR/GC-MS coupled system allows correlating the mass changes, heat flow, and detected gases.

FTIR and GC-MS each have their advantages and limitations. The high sensitivity of GC-MS allows rapid and easy detection of molecules from peaks of low intensity. Furthermore, FTIR data well complement the information provided by MS spectrum patterns to achieve the structural identification of organic volatile species. However, FTIR is less sensitive. In addition, diatomic molecules, such as H2, N2, O2, do not possess a permanent dipole moment and are not infrared active. Therefore, they cannot be detected using infrared absorption. On the contrary, small molecules such as CO2, CO, NH3, and H2O can be identified to a high degree of certainty38. Altogether, the information provided by these complementary methods makes it possible to gain insight of the gases emitted during thermal characterization.

In order to check the state of the art in terms of thermal decomposition reactions identified for Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt oxide (NMC (111)) cathode, graphite (Gr) anode and 1M LiPF6 in ethylene carbonate (EC)/dimethyl carbonate (DMC) = 50/50 (v/v) electrolyte, a literature review was performed. Table 1, Table 2, and Table 3 summarize the main findings.

In the field of thermal characterization of battery components, the sample preparation method has a significant effect on DSC experimental results since this has an influence on the DSC signal. Many studies have reported different approaches in terms of electrode handling. Some variations include 1) scratching active material from electrode without prior rinsing nor adding extra amount of electrolyte, e.g.,54,55; 2) rinsing/drying/scratching active material and adding a given amount of electrolyte with it in the crucible e.g.,55,56; 3) rinsing/drying/scratching active material without adding electrolyte at a later stage (e.g., see reference57). However, in the literature, there is no general agreement on the sample preparation techniques. Washing the electrode affects the integrity and the reactants in the SEI58, which in turn, modify the amount of heat generated from its decomposition34,59. On the other hand, there is no clear indication or sufficient details on the amount of added electrolyte to the harvested materials prior to thermal analysis.

In this work, the SEI modification is minimized by not washing the electrode and excluding electrolyte addition, in an attempt to characterize the electrode material in its original state, while keeping its residual electrolyte content. Realizing that SEI thermal decomposition is a potential trigger to thermal runaway, this preparation method is expected to allow for a better understanding of the thermal properties of the electrode, under test conditions, without the dissolution of some SEI products. Indeed, the breakdown of SEI layer on the anode is generally the first stage of battery failure that initiates a self-heating process39,41,60.

Another important issue in thermal analysis is the measurement conditions (type of crucible, open/closed crucible, atmosphere) that are affecting the DSC signal to be measured. In this case, the use of a hermetically closed crucible is clearly not suitable for the hyphenated STA/GC-MS/FTIR techniques, which implies the identification of evolved gases. In a semi-closed system, the size of the opening in the perforated crucible lid can have a strong influence on the measurement results. If the size is small, the thermal data is comparable to a sealed crucible61. On the contrary, a large hole in the lid is expected to decrease the measured thermal signal because of the early release of low temperature decomposition products. As a result, these species would not be involved in higher temperature processes61. Indeed, a closed or semi-closed system allows longer residence time of the species, transformed from condensed to vapor phase inside the crucible. A laser-cut vent hole of 5 µm in the crucible lid has been selected for the investigation of thermal behavior and evolved gases of graphite anode and NMC (111) cathode. Considering the size of the laser-cut hole, we assume the system inside the crucible may most probably depict, a simple but reasonable approximation of the dynamic inside both, a closed battery cell and a battery cell venting.

This present work is built upon an earlier publication by the same authors48. However, this paper focuses in more detail on the experimental part, highlighting the benefits of the used techniques and testing conditions to reach the goal of this work.

To the best of the authors' knowledge, there is limited research published on the thermal behavior of electrode material, using of the exact combination of these analytical instruments STA/FTIR/GC-MS, analytical parameters and sample preparation/ handling to elucidate chemical reaction mechanisms at material level during thermal decomposition. At the cell level, Fernandes et al. investigated the evolved gases in a continuous way, using FTIR and GC-MS, in a battery cylindrical cell undergoing an overcharged abuse test, in a closed chamber62. They have identified and quantified the gases during this test, but the understanding of reaction mechanisms still remains unclear. Furthermore, to develop a TR runaway model, Ren et al. have also conducted DSC experiments at material level to calculate kinetic triplet parameters of exothermic reactions55. They have identified six exothermic processes, but the reaction mechanisms were not determined, and they did not use coupled gas analysis techniques.

On the other hand, Feng et al. have proposed a three-stage TR mechanism in LIB cell with three characteristic temperatures that can be used as indexes to assess thermal safety of battery63. For this purpose, they have used a thermal database with data from ARC. Nevertheless, details of the chemical reactions underlying these three mechanisms are not provided.

In this study, the data obtained through these thermal analysis methods are essential for the development of the kinetic model where the main thermal decomposition processes should be determined and properly described. The kinetic thermal triplet, namely the activation energy, frequency factor, and heat of reaction, are calculated for the different sub-processes taking place in both electrodes during thermally induced decomposition, using three different heating rates: 5, 10 and 15 °C /min. When applicable, the Kissinger method64,65 was used for the determination of activation energy and frequency factor, following the Arrhenius equation. The Kissinger method is applicable when DSC peak shifts to higher temperature with increasing heating rate. The reaction enthalpy is obtained by integrating the area of the reaction peak, as measured by DSC. From these thermal data and the measurement uncertainties, a reaction kinetic model is proposed to simulate the dynamics of a thermal runaway. In the second part of this work66, this newly developed model will be used to determine the probability of a TR event as a function of the parameters of an ISC triggering method.

The scheme depicted in Figure 2 summarizes the sequence of steps needed to undertake the protocol. The first step consists of assembling the electrochemical cell with the battery materials under investigation, namely, NMC (111)/Gr.

In order to be able to harvest the battery materials after electrochemical cycling and state of charge (SOC) adjustment to 100%, a re-sealable electrochemical cell supplied by EL-CELL (ECC-PAT-Core) was used. This allowed a smooth cell opening process without damage to the electrodes. Once the battery materials are harvested, thermal characterization is carried out.

方案

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注意:有关每个步骤的详细说明,请参见图2所示的各个子部分。

1. 在充满氩气的手套箱内制备电化学池的步骤

  1. 用于两电极或三电极电化学池的带隔膜的绝缘套管组件
    1. 取一片聚合物隔膜圆片(直径 22 mm,厚度 25 µm),将其放置在聚丙烯绝缘套管底部的顶端。
    2. 小心压下绝缘套管的上部以完成组装,确保隔膜平整。
  2. 电化学池组装
    注意:所有与电化学池组装相关的步骤必须在充满氩气的手套箱内进行,箱内 O2 和 H2O 浓度 < 0.1 ppm。
    1. 准备本步骤所需的工具和材料,并将其放入手套箱内:真空吸笔镊子、EL-CELL 电化学池(包括:50 型不锈钢下冲头、不锈钢上冲头、第 1.1 节中已组装的绝缘套管、不锈钢核心池部件)、额定面容量为 2.24 mAh/cm2 的 18 mm 石墨圆片、额定面容量为 2.0 mAh/cm2 的 18 mm NMC (111) 圆片、EC/DMC = 50/50 (v/v) 的 1.0 M LiPF6 电解液、100–1,000 µL 微量移液器及移液器吸头。
      注意:石墨和 NMC (111) 的比容量分别为 350 mAh/g 和 145 mAh/g,由制造商提供。确保负极电极的设计容量高于正极,以避免锂在石墨负极上析出。正确平衡电极容量对于防止石墨过充电和锂析出至关重要。电极的面容量也由制造商提供。
    2. 使用四位数分析天平称量电极圆片,并记录数值以确定活性物质载量(见第 2 节 电极圆片容量的计算)。
      注意:使用工业级石墨负极圆片(96% 活性物质、2% 羧甲基纤维素(CMC)粘结剂、2% 导电添加剂)和 NMC (111) 正极圆片(86% 活性物质、8% 导电添加剂、6% 聚偏氟乙烯粘结剂)组装两电极或三电极电化学池(EL-CELL)。与锂金属半电池组装相比,两/三电极电化学池的组装可重现与实际大尺寸电池在充电状态下相同的锂含量。在称量范围不超过 40 g 时,数字天平的精度为 0.01 mg。
    3. 使用微量移液器吸取 150 µL 电解液,滴加一滴至绝缘套管底部一侧的隔膜表面。使用真空吸笔镊子将石墨负极插入,随后放入下冲头。
    4. 将绝缘套管翻转,将剩余的电解液滴加至隔膜上。使用真空吸笔镊子插入 NMC (111) 正极圆片,然后放入上冲头。
    5. 将组件装入池芯部分,放置 O 型圈,并使用螺栓夹具紧固所有部件。
    6. 使用万用表测量新组装电池的标称电压,以确保电池各组件之间接触良好并识别潜在故障。万用表在 3 V 时的电压分辨率为 1 mV,在 30 V 时为 10 mV。
      ​注意:为避免电池打开后长时间等待可能引起的活性材料组成变化,每次热分析实验均应组装新的 18 mm NMC (111)/Gr 电化学池。从电池打开到完成 STA/逸出气体分析(包括所有准备工作)的时间间隔不应超过 2 天。正确的电池组装与密封对于电池的成功电化学循环以及后续用于 STA/GC-MS/FTIR 表征的电极制备至关重要 。

2. 电极圆盘容量的计算

注意:来自同一供应商的裸铜箔和铝箔(未涂层)被裁剪成固定直径为 18 mm 的圆片。

  1. 称量(至少)5个直径为18 mm的铝圆片和5个铜圆片,以计算每种集流体的平均重量。
    1. 每次电池组装前,按照步骤1.2.2所述,称量18 mm圆片状NMC正极和18 mm圆片状石墨负极,以便后续精确计算材料载量和计算面容量。
  2. 通过减去平均质量来推算电极材料的负载量W非涂层集流体) 从电极圆片重量中减去集流体(未涂覆箔片)的重量:
    W电极材料 (毫克) = W涂覆电极圆盘 (毫克)- W非涂层集流体 (mg)
  3. 计算活性物质含量:
    W活性物质 (毫克) = W电极材料 (毫克) * X%
    其中 X% 是活性物质的质量分数,由制造商提供(参见步骤1.2.2后的注释)。
  4. 通过将活性物质含量乘以供应商提供的额定比容量来确定电极片的实际容量(参见步骤1.2.1后的注释)。随后,计算该圆片的面容量:
    计算容量 电极片 (毫安时)= W活性物质 (g) * 额定比容量 (mAh/g)
    计算面容量 电极片 (mAh/cm2) = 计算得出 c容量 电极片 (mAh) / πr2
    r = 电极圆盘的半径
    注意:步骤 2.1–2.4 用于精确测定每个电极的质量负载和面容量,并验证供应商提供的数值(即 2.24 mAh/cm²)。2 用于石墨负极和 2.0 mAh/cm2 用于NMC(111)正极)。

3. 电化学循环

  1. 根据 Ruiz 等人67在第1节(软包电池制备与化成)第3段及 Ruiz 等人67论文的补充文件中所述,使用电池循环仪软件建立循环程序。
    注意:第3节中进行的电化学循环是一个初始化成循环,用于激活电池、测量容量并最终调整荷电状态(SOC)。每个电池经历两次充放电循环,然后完全充电(截止电压为 4.2 V)。循环次数根据供应商建议选定。
  2. 按照 Ruiz 等人67所述方法,将以下步骤纳入电化学循环程序(见补充文件1):以 C/20 的恒定电流(CC)充电至截止电压 4.2 V;静置 1 小时(开路电压,OCV);以 C/20 的恒定电流放电至截止电压 3 V;静置 1 小时(OCV);以 C/20 的恒定电流充电至截止电压 4.2 V;静置 1 小时(OCV);以 C/20 的恒定电流放电至截止电压 3 V;静置 1 小时(OCV);以 C/20 的恒定电流充电至截止电压 4.2 V。
    注意:由于电化学电池在初始化成循环前无法确定其实际容量,因此对应于 C/20 倍率的测试电流是基于电极圆片的计算容量确定的(详见步骤 2.4)。由此可估算出容量为 5.18 mAh。由于 1C 倍率表示在 1 小时内完成电池的完全充放电,因此对应于 C/20 倍率的电流计算为 5.18 mAh / 20 h = 0.259 mA。因此,在达到相应的充放电截止条件前,施加 0.259 mA 的恒定电流。
  3. 为该程序提供一个文件名(例如,STA 研究,电池预充电条件)。
  4. 将温控箱设置为恒定温度 25 °C。
  5. 将电化学电池从手套箱中取出,并放入温控箱内。连接适当的电缆,将电池与循环仪相连。
  6. 通过选择程序的文件名、输入对应于 C/20 倍率的电流,并选择温控箱编号来运行程序。随后点击开始按钮。
  7. 定期检查充放电随时间变化的曲线,以识别循环过程中可能出现的问题。为此,请选择相应通道并点击图形图标以显示曲线图。如果测得的容量与计算容量相差超过 10%,则不应使用该电池,因为可能存在副反应(可能随后影响热数据)或电池组装失败。
  8. 使用以下公式计算石墨锂化程度:
    石墨锂化程度 (%) = (实验放电容量 / 计算面容量) × 100
    注意:实验放电容量来自第 3.2 段中的第二次放电步骤。实际上,软件会为每个循环提供实验测得的充电和放电容量。计算面容量(mAh/cm2)根据步骤 2.4 确定。

4. 细胞拆解及STA/GC-MS/FTIR分析样品制备

  1. 循环步骤结束后,将电化学池移入手套箱内进行拆解。打开电池,取出活塞,取下其中一个电极(阴极或阳极),然后重新组装电池,以保护剩余电极不致干燥。
  2. 使用1.2.2步骤中的精密天平称量电极,并将其放置在一张新的铝箔上。将铝箔折叠后放入转移手套箱的前室中,在真空条件下干燥2小时。
    ​注意:研究发现 通过 初步测试表明,2 h 的干燥时间是达到稳定重量的最佳时长。稳定性的判定标准为:电极在至少 5 min 内连续两次称重之间的重量无显著波动。当重量变化超过以下规定区间时,即视为存在显著波动:
    X 毫克 ± 0.01 毫克
  3. 当重量稳定在 X mg ± 0.01 mg 时,记录干燥电极的重量。随后使用镊子和刮刀刮取圆盘电极表面的涂层材料,用于进一步表征。

5. 热表征与气体分析

注意:热表征和气体分析在如图1所述的装置中进行。

  1. STA 样品制备
    1. 通过打开 STA 软件并点击 文件,然后在 . 在……之下 设置 标签的 测量定义 窗口中,根据 表 4.
    2. 前往 标题 标签并选择 校正 使用空坩埚执行一次校正运行,以进行基线校正。填写样品名称(例如, 校正运行 NMC-Gr-16_Gr)并选择用于本次运行的温度和灵敏度校准文件。转到 MFC 气体 并选择 作为吹扫气体和保护气体。
      注意: 校正运行 用于建立准确的基线。
    3. 创建温度程序 温度程序 标签,如所述 表5, 定义加热和冷却过程。
    4. 将氦气的流速分别设置为吹扫气体100 mL/min,保护气体20 mL/min。点击 GN2 (氮气)作为冷却介质以及 STC 用于温度程序所有阶段的样品温度控制,从5 °C的等温步骤开始,直至加热阶段结束。
    5. 前往 最后项目 标签并为此运行指定一个文件名(可与样本名称相同)。
    6. 使用精密天平(与步骤 1.2.2 中所用相同的天平)称量空坩埚的质量。将坩埚质量记录在样品名称旁。
    7. 打开银炉,将坩埚连同参比坩埚一起放置在STA的DSC/TG样品支架上。
      注意:坩埚为铝制,配有激光穿孔的盖子,孔径为5 µm。
    8. 确保样品架居中放置,以避免关闭炉体时发生碰撞。为此,需谨慎 lowering 银炉,当炉体接近样品架时,检查样品载体相对于银炉内壁的位置。
    9. 缓慢抽空炉内气体(以去除氩气),然后以最大流速(350 mL/min 吹扫气体和 350 mL/min 保护气体)重新充入氦气。至少重复抽空和充气两次,以去除因打开炉体放置坩埚时从手套箱 atmosphere 中进入的氩气。
      注意:抽真空和回填步骤(氦气再填充步骤)非常重要,因为炉内气体环境的类型会影响同步热分析炉体向样品的热导率。
    10. 抽真空并重新注液后,等待15分钟以使重量稳定。按下按钮,使用温度程序执行校正运行。 测量 开始运行。
    11. 当运行结束后,取出空坩埚。将刮取的材料(阳极或阴极)样品约6–8 mg放入坩埚中。称量坩埚中的样品并记录质量后,使用压封机密封坩埚及盖子。
    12. 重复步骤 5.1.7 至 5.1.9,使用装有样品的坩埚。
      注意:必须使用校正运行中所用的同一坩埚和盖子。
    13. 通过以下步骤打开校正运行文件: 文件 打开选择 校正 > 样本 作为测量类型在下方 快速定义 表。写下样品的名称和重量(例如, NMC-Gr-16_Gr)并选择一个文件名。
    14. 前往 温度程序 标签并激活 FT (FTIR)选项,设置5 °C的等温步骤及升温至590 °C的加热阶段,以启动这两个阶段的FTIR气体监测。勾选 GC 用于加热段(5 °C 至 590 °C)以启动气相色谱-质谱分析的装置
      注意:在启动测试之前,需要按照下文相应部分(即第5.2和5.3节)所述准备连接的气体设备。
  2. FTIR 样品制备
    1. 取一个漏斗,插入汞镉碲(MCT)检测器端口的杜瓦瓶中,小心地注入液氮2.
    2. 打开FTIR软件。在 基本参数 标签,加载名为 TG-FTIR 的方法 TGA.XPM该方法所使用的输入测量参数在文中提及 表6 (另请参见 补充文件 2 用于TGA.XPM程序的参数截图。
      注意:使用置于红外气体池入口处的质量流量计,确保氩气流速恒定。不使用时,需维持10 L/h的气流,以去除水分和CO的存在。2运行过程中使用20 L/h的气流。10 cm光程红外气体池为外置气体池(此处加热至200 °C),与同步热分析仪(STA)联用,用于鉴定热分析过程中释放的气体。
    3. 通过单击检查干涉图 检查信号 等待干涉图稳定后再开始热分析。
  3. 气相色谱-质谱联用仪设置
    1. 将以下参数设置到用于在线气体监测的气相色谱-质谱(GC-MS)方法中,如图所示 表7.
    2. 打开真空泵管线,将STA产生的气态物质抽吸至FTIR和GC-MS。调节泵速至稳定流速,约为60 mL/min。
    3. 在加载上述参数的方法后(参见 表7),点击 开始运行 并填写样本名称和数据文件名称;然后,点击 好的,然后在 运行方法.
  4. 启动 STA/GC-MS/FTIR 运行
    1. 在 STA 软件中,验证温度程序和气体流速,并确保启用 GC-MS 和 FTIR 选项。
    2. 按压 测量 并点击 启动FTIR连接 建立 STA 软件与 FTIR 软件之间的连接。
    3. 连接建立后,单击 塔尔 将天平归零,并通过选择检查气体流量 设置初始气体样品室中吹扫气体的流速应为100 mL/min,保护气体的流速应为20 mL/min。
    4. 按压 开始 点击按钮以启动运行。
      注意:以5、10和15 °C/min的升温速率,对阳极和阴极材料重复进行热特性分析和逸出气体分析。
  5. DSC与TGA数据评估
    1. 实验结束后,双击图标打开 Netzsch Proteus 数据处理程序。
    2. 在上方功能区工具栏中,选择 T/t 在下方用箭头将横轴从时间(t)替换为温度标度(T)。为清晰起见,通过点击移除冷却曲线 片段 单击功能区栏上的按钮并取消选中它们来移除。同时,通过单击移除样品室气体流、TGA 和 Gram-Schmidt 曲线 坐标轴/曲线 图标,然后取消勾选。
    3. 通过右键单击图表,测量总热量释放以及各个主要DSC峰的面积,然后选择 评估随后,点击 部分区域 并选择将用于测量总放热量的温度范围,使用 线性 作为基线类型。关于部分区域偏好,选择 左侧开始.
      1. 然后,移动光标并单击每个主要DSC峰的终点,以测量与之相关的放热量,然后按应用。
        注意:当信号回到基线时,峰结束。
    4. 通过右键点击DSC图谱并选择,测量每个主要峰的峰值温度(石墨负极中有3个峰,NMC(111)正极中有3个峰) 评估 > 峰值.
      1. 然后,将光标移至主要DSC放热峰的两端,并点击以确定峰温。
    5. 收集每个峰的峰值温度、加热速率和热流值,以及总热流。绘制峰值温度与加热速率的关系图。
      注意:根据DSC实验数据,采用Kissinger分析法计算遵循阿伦尼乌斯型动力学的峰的活化能。
    6. 通过选择将TGA曲线重新放回图表中 轴/曲线 图标并勾选 TG
    7. 通过TGA曲线评估质量损失随温度的变化,并结合DSC曲线,初步分析与TGA曲线相关的相变/焓变情况。为此,请右键单击TGA曲线,然后选择 评估 > 质量变化将光标移至重量损失前后,按下 应用,然后 好的.
    8. 将 X 轴从温度转换为时间尺度。
    9. 通过点击检查产生的气体 GC-MSD Netzsch 数据分析图标 在气相色谱-质谱仪工作站中,加载相应热分析的数据文件并检查气相色谱峰。
    10. 放大待分析的峰,然后在基线和峰上依次右键双击。随后,进入图标工具栏并选择 光谱 > 减去这将从光谱中减去基线。
    11. 双击质谱图以查看在NIST数据库中与该峰对应的潜在候选物/匹配项。
      注意:GC-MS 分析与 STA 分析的时间尺度存在差异。实际上,GC-MS 分析总是在热程序初始启动 20 分钟后开始。GC-MS 监测从 STA 加热阶段(从 5 °C 升至 590 °C)的起始点开始。GC-MS 的初始温度为 100 °C,而 STA 加热阶段的初始温度为 5 °C。
    12. 关于FTIR数据的评估,打开 Opus 软件。通过前往实验期间记录的光谱文件并加载 文件 在功能区工具中,然后选择 加载文件 并从文件夹中检索数据文件。现在, TRS (时间分辨光谱)后运行显示 是开放的。
      注意:三维数据可视化可显示在不同波数(cm⁻¹)下采集的红外光谱-1) 随时间(秒)变化的曲线,显示了傅里叶变换红外光谱仪(FTIR)检测到的同步热分析(STA)中电极材料热分解产生的气体产物。Y轴表示吸光度信号的强度,Z轴表示时间,X轴表示波数。
    13. 二维 位于3D图右侧的DSC曲线,通过按下鼠标右键将X轴从时间更改为温度,然后进入 选择时间轴 并选择 温度.
    14. 之后,在同一 2D DSC 图谱中,沿 DSC 曲线的 X 轴(温度)移动蓝色箭头光标,以监测在宽波数范围内红外吸收的变化,该变化显示在右下窗口(红外吸光度强度 versus 波数 cm⁻¹)-1)。完成该评估后,确定一组表现出相似趋势的吸收带(在相同温度下具有相同数量的极大值),然后将蓝色箭头光标定位在能够反映这些吸收带最大吸收的位置。
      注意:此步骤可用于确定与特定温度范围相关的逸出气体化合物的红外吸收谱带。
    15. 在红外吸收率方面 光谱窗口中显示了二维DSC曲线选定区域的蓝色(未知)和红色(基线)吸光度曲线。确定蓝色红外光谱(未知光谱数据)中各个吸收峰的位置。 通过沿X轴(波长数cm⁻¹)移动绿色和品红色箭头光标-1).
    16. 在中间窗口的扫描列表中,每个谱图均显示其温度、日期/时间及索引信息。向下滚动列表,查找以相同颜色代码高亮显示的红色和蓝色扫描。
    17. 通过右键单击列表并选择,提取红色光谱(基线) 提取选定光谱. 用蓝光谱扫描重复相同的操作。在 显示 标签页中,提取出的光谱以其索引编号和温度信息显示。
    18. 在窗口左侧的 OPUS 浏览器中,单击谱图扫描文件名(未知谱图),然后按减法图标以打开 光谱减法 窗口。在 OPUS 浏览器中,点击基线文件中的 AB 图标,并将其拖入内部 需减去的文件 盒中。在 频率范围 用于减法的选项卡,勾选 使用文件限制 盒子
    19. 点击 启动交互模式现在,窗口中显示两个图表。上方的图表显示未知光谱(现在为红色而非蓝色)和待扣除的基线(现在为蓝色)。窗口下方的图表是扣除操作得到的结果曲线。单击 自动减除,然后在 储存 完成后,OPUS 浏览器中的未知吸光度光谱文件将添加 SUBTR 图标,表明该光谱已进行处理。
      注意: 改变手指 选项允许自定义和优化默认设置为1的减法常数。如有疑问,请选择 自动减除 软件将自动完成此操作。
    20. 从 OPUS 浏览器中关闭基线文件,以将其从图中移除。
    21. 从 OPUS 浏览器中选择未知吸光度光谱文件,然后单击 光谱搜索 功能区工具栏中的图标。在 搜索参数 标签,将数值 30 作为 最大命中数 其数值 100 对于 最低命中质量. 勾选复选框 多个组分 在谱图中进行搜索。在 选择文库 标签,确保调用了相关库 EPA-NIST 气相红外数据库 存在。如果不存在,请将其添加到库中。完成所有设置后,单击 搜索资源库执行此操作后,将列出一组可能的匹配项。
    22. 检查未知红外吸收光谱中可能存在的气态化合物列表(该光谱中存在) 在步骤5.14中由蓝色光标选中的区域,通过目视比较不同分析物参考光谱(来自潜在候选化合物)与未知光谱的频率特征。寻找最佳的峰匹配,以确定在特定温度下释放的气体种类。
    23. 选择每种已识别气体化合物最具代表性的波数。右上角的时间-强度图可用于测量生成气体的浓度变化。
    24. 导出不同已识别气体(本例中为 CO)的气体释放数据2 以及EC)保存为ASCII格式,以便在Excel、Origin或其他数据处理软件中进一步处理。为此,请进入 TRS 跑后显示 窗口
      注意:在右上方窗口中,列表显示了两个波长,分别对应于右下角吸光度图(特定温度下)中的绿色光标箭头和粉色光标箭头。在此情况下,绿色和粉色箭头所示吸收峰对应的波长对应于 EC,其值为 1,863 cm⁻¹-1 和 CO2 2,346 cm-1.
    25. 选择一个波长,右键单击,然后前往 导出轨迹 > 纯ASCII(z,y)用另一波长重复相同的过程。

结果

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$$\rightleftharpoonup{xx}$$ $$\longleftharp{xx}$$, $$\longrightharp{xx}$$,

本节所示图示引自参考文献48

电化学电池的电化学表征
在进行热实验之前,共对十二个电池进行了电化学表征,结果如表8所示。每个电池的容量均基于活性物质质量进行计算(参见《实验方案》中的第2节),并假设NMC(111)的理论容量为145 mAh/g,石墨的理论容量为350 mAh/g。实验放电容量取自第二次放电步骤。表8还列出了根据第3.8节计算得到的锂化程度。

负极石墨的设计载量相比正极过量10%,以避免在双电极NMC(111)/Gr电池结构中发生锂析出。我们的测量结果显示,平均过量为11%。

表8的5号样品中,NMC(111)/Gr电化学电池第二圈的充放电电位曲线如图3所示。该图显示,放电曲线在相对于Li的约50 mV的负极电位处停止,因此证实了不存在锂沉积现象。实际上,负极电位并未达到相对于Li的0 V。

锂化石墨的热分解
根据我们的实验测量结果和观察,可能的石墨负极热分解机理源自文献调研的总结,如表1表2表3所列,并将在后文的讨论部分进行阐述。

从阳极刮取的粉末(表8中的5号样品)的典型热分解曲线如图4a所示。图中显示了热流(mW/mg)、质量损失(wt%)以及释放气体中CO2(2,346 cm−1)和EC(1,863 cm−1)的相对FTIR强度随温度的变化(温度范围为5 °C至590 °C,升温速率为10 °C/min)。该分解曲线可分为四个明显的热反应区域(以阿拉伯数字标示)。DSC曲线中最显著的峰以罗马数字标出。图4b图4c分别显示了在110 °C和250 °C时释放气体的FTIR光谱。为便于比较,图中同时加入了NIST标准数据库中CO2、乙烯和EC的参考光谱。

在区域1中可见一个尖锐的吸热峰。在此低于100 °C的温度范围内,未检测到质量损失,也未产生气体。有趣的是,该峰也出现在未经前期电化学循环的原始石墨电极与电解液接触时(未展示)。这一观察结果表明,该峰不属于锂化石墨的热特性。因此,在后续热性能计算中未考虑此峰。

区域2显示,随着温度升高,出现一个较宽的DSC放热分解峰,峰值出现在约150 °C–170 °C(峰I)。在约100 °C时可观察到CO2的特征红外吸收峰(2,346 cm-1),该吸收峰与宽放热峰的起始温度同时出现或稍晚出现。图4b展示了在110 °C时的FTIR谱图,其中CO2信号清晰可见。在图5中也通过GC-MS检测到了该物质。然而,其峰强度有所下降,如图4a中2,346 cm-1处的吸收减弱所示。此外,EC在接近150 °C时开始蒸发,这由图4a中FTIR在1,863 cm-1处的曲线变化所证实。在100 °C–220 °C温度范围内,气体释放和质量损失极小。在区域2结束时,值得注意的是在轻微放热之后出现了一个约200 °C的小吸热峰。该相变过程的可能来源将在后续讨论部分予以说明。

如区域3所示,当温度升至220 °C以上时,热量产生增加,表现为明显的放热峰(峰II),并伴随显著的质量损失和同时发生的气体释放。气体分析明确显示有一氧化碳(CO)2 (通过 傅里叶变换红外光谱在 图4a 和气相色谱-质谱联用(GC-MS)在 图5),EC(通过 傅里叶变换红外光谱(FTIR) 图4a图4c),PF3 (通过 GC-MS 分析 图6)和乙烯(通过 气相色谱-质谱联用 图7)作为热反应的主要气态产物。需要指出的是,在250 °C的红外光谱图谱中(图4c),由于与在110 °C下获得的谱图相比,红外图谱更为复杂,因此很难指认所有的吸收峰。图4b该区域观察到的特征,尤其是与区域2相比气体释放的变化,表明存在连续和并行的分解机制。

当温度超过 280 °C 时,放热量减少,并在区域 4 中出现小的、部分重叠的峰。TGA 数据显示,在 15 °C/min 条件下,仅在此升温速率下观察到微小的质量损失变化,并检测到气体产物。通过 GC-MS 检测到乙烯的痕迹(见图 7)、C2H6(见图 8)、CH4(已检测但未显示)以及 C3H6(已检测但未显示)。与区域 3 相比,该区域释放的气体分解产物及较小的放热量(来自这些重叠的放热峰)表明,此区域发生的热过程与之前不同。此外,应注意的是,在先前热解阶段形成的较稳定的分解产物也可能在此温度范围内开始分解。在 400 °C 至 590 °C 之间,未观察到引起焓变的分解反应。

图9展示了锂化石墨在三种不同加热速率(5、10 和 15 °C/min)下的热分解曲线。此处应用的动力学分析方法为基于阿伦尼乌斯方程的Kissinger法,该方法根据每种加热速率下的峰顶温度推导出活化能和频率因子。DSC曲线显示,除峰I外,较高的加热速率导致更高的峰顶温度。而峰I的峰顶温度则随着加热速率的增加向较低温度方向移动。这一现象表明,峰I不遵循阿伦尼乌斯型动力学行为,因此Kissinger法不适用于该峰。在峰III中可见的小而部分重叠的放热峰,其形状随加热速率升高发生中等程度变化,次级峰在较高加热速率下变得更加明显且尖锐。这可能意味着区域2和区域3的反应产物对位于区域4的峰III产生了影响。然而值得注意的是,在此情况下仍可应用Kissinger分析。

从DSC分析中获得的第二峰和第三峰的Kissinger图如图9所示。所有DSC实验在每个加热速率下至少重复三次(见Table 8)。关于第二峰,NMC-Gr-23被识别为异常值,因其超出其他数据在假设正态分布下的预测置信区间。因此,该数据点已被排除在第二峰动力学参数(活化能、频率因子、放热量)的进一步计算之外,但不影响第三峰的分析。事实上,在第三峰中,NMC-Gr-23位于预测置信区间内,如图9所示。尽管第三峰存在部分重叠的多步热分解过程,线性Kissinger关系仍适用于区域4中发生的这些放热反应过程。

已鉴定出的嵌锂石墨的动力学参数列于表9中。第一峰的放热量、活化能和频率因子数值取自文献34。基于这些数据,通过建立一个近似的动力学模型来描述该负极材料体系中发生的分解反应,从而对负极的DSC曲线进行了模拟。所考虑的分解路径及其鉴定结果在讨论部分中具体说明。

NMC(111)正极材料的热分解

采用与负极材料相同的方法研究了正极材料的热行为和稳定性。主要的反应机理来自表1表2表3,并在后续阶段进行讨论。

从阴极刮取的粉末(来自表8的样品编号5)的典型热分解曲线如图10所示。图中展示了热流(mW/mg)、质量损失(wt.%),以及CO2(2,346 cm−1)和EC(1,863 cm−1)的相对FTIR强度随温度的变化(温度范围为5 °C至590 °C,升温速率为10 °C/min)。比较阳极和阴极的DSC曲线可知,两者产热量存在差异,阳极释放的热量更大,表明负极具有更高的热反应活性。这也说明阳极的热事件对总热量释放的贡献比阴极更为显著。在脱锂态NMC(111)阴极材料的热分解图谱中,共识别出四个热反应区域(以阿拉伯数字标示)。

在区域1(低于150 °C)中,约70 °C处可见一个较小的吸热峰,该现象在负极中也有观察到,但强度较弱。此外,在100 °C以上出现少量CO2释放,但未伴随热流行为的显著变化,且与图4a中显示的曲线几乎相同。正极和负极中均出现该吸热现象及CO2释放,可能源于类似的分解反应。因此,在后续分析和计算中可忽略此峰的影响。

当温度进入区域2的155 °C-230 °C范围时,图10中的EC傅里叶变换红外吸收曲线出现上升。差示扫描量热(DSC)曲线在约200 °C处显示出一个小的吸热峰,在图11中以15 °C/min的升温速率下更为明显。该峰与放热分解反应重叠,使得单独评估变得困难。出于实际考虑,此峰不能纳入热三联体的计算中。需要注意的是,该温度区间的热重分析(TGA)曲线表现出快速的质量损失,可能与EC的蒸发有关。

区域3的特征是在240 °C至290 °C之间出现明显的放热峰,CO2释放急剧增加,同时电导率(EC)持续下降,傅里叶变换红外光谱(FTIR)信号强度变化表明了这一点。热重分析(TGA)结果表明该区域伴随有轻微的质量损失。

在 290 °C 至 590 °C 之间,发生三个连续的放热分解过程,每个放热峰均伴随有 CO2 的释放。如 TGA 失重曲线所示,第 4 区域内的这些热过程导致持续的质量损失,且在 590 °C 以上质量损失似乎仍未停止。

为了研究阴极热分解的动力学参数,在 5、10 和 15 °C/min 的升温速率下进行了 DSC 测量。如图 11所示,随着升温速率的增加,峰位向更高温度偏移。这表明适用于采用阿伦尼乌斯型动力学和 Kissinger 分析来描述这些热反应。NMC 峰 I-III 的热三重峰已计算得出,相应的 Kissinger 图如图 11所示。

来自图11中峰I的结果清楚地表明,NMC-Gr-30恰好是一个离群值,因为该数据点落在其他数据预测置信带之外。因此,在后续分析中已将其剔除。图11中峰II和峰III的所有数据均获得了良好的线性拟合。在峰II和峰III中,NMC-Gr-30未被视为离群值,因为在两种情况下,NMC-Gr-30均位于预测置信带之内,如图11所示。根据Kissinger图的斜率,可方便地计算出活化能。

表10展示了假设呈正态分布时,峰I、峰II和峰III的动力学参数及其相对误差。关于电解液,特别是碳酸乙烯酯(EC),由于碳酸二甲酯(DMC)预期会完全蒸发(其在760 mm Hg下的沸点为90 °C),在区域2和区域3中同时发生的EC蒸发、EC燃烧和EC分解过程的动力学参数列于表11中。对于EC蒸发,活化能和频率因子是根据不同加热速率下的微分热重(DTG)曲线确定的。DTG图显示了加热过程中的质量损失随温度的变化,且随着加热速率的增加,DTG峰向更高温度偏移(已测量但未显示)。此外,该观察结果表明,EC蒸发的发生速度比EC与NMC的反应更快。因此,采用Kissinger法计算EC蒸发的动力学参数,并从NIST数据库中获取EC的蒸发热。至于EC燃烧,相关数据近似取自参考文献69,70。关于EC分解,其热力学参数取自参考文献71

用于气体吸收研究的热重分析装置图,包含手套箱、FTIR 和 GC-MS 设置。
图 1:联用测量系统的装置示意图。 1—STA 与 GC-MS 之间的连接管路;2—STA 与配备 TG-IR 箱的 FTIR 系统之间的连接管路。该图经参考文献48许可转载。请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

NMC/石墨电池工艺流程图;步骤包括循环、电池拆解、热分析。
图2:本实验方案中所述步骤的示意图。 请点击此处查看此图的高清版本。

电池充放电曲线;电芯,NMC,石墨电极电势相对于Li/V;电化学分析。
图3。表8中编号为5的样品(即NMC-Gr-30)在C/20倍率下的第二个循环曲线。经参考文献48许可转载。请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

热分析和傅里叶变换红外光谱图;DSC、TGA、FTIR方法;光谱分析结果。
图4:表8中编号为5的锂化石墨(即NMC-Gr-30)的TGA、DSC和FTIR信号。a)锂化石墨的同步热分析和FTIR信号,其中FTIR吸收峰在1,863 cm-1处对应EC,在2,346 cm−1处对应CO2;(b)在110 °C时从锂化石墨释放出的气体的FTIR光谱;(c)在250 °C时从锂化石墨释放出的气体的FTIR光谱。本实验的升温速率为10 °C/min。参考光谱基于NIST化学网本(NIST Chemistry WebBook)68的数据绘制。阿拉伯数字表示不同的热解区域,每个区域可能包含多个峰。罗马数字表示最显著且已建模的峰。本图经参考文献48许可复制。请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。

二氧化碳质谱分析;三个NIST质谱图;相对丰度 vs m/z。
图5:区域2和区域3中检测到的CO2质谱图与NIST标准谱图的比较(基于NIST化学网本数据绘制68)。 请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

PF₃的质谱(MS)谱图,显示相对丰度与质荷比(m/z)峰的分析结果。
图6:在温度区域3检测到的PF3质谱图,与NIST谱图对比(基于NIST化学网络数据库68的数据绘制)。请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

显示C2H4的质谱图,包括质荷比和相对丰度数据分析。
图7:在温度区域3和4检测到的乙烯质谱图,与NIST标准谱图对比(基于NIST化学网页数据库68的数据绘制)。请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。

质谱图,C2H6的NIST质谱,显示相对丰度与m/z值的关系。
图8:在温度区域4检测到的C2H6的质谱图,与NIST质谱图的对比(基于NIST化学网页数据库68的数据绘制)。 请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

差示扫描量热法(DSC)图谱及动力学分析;热流与温度关系图。
图9:表8中样品编号2、6、9的锂化石墨在5、10和15 °C/min加热速率下的热流曲线,以及峰II和峰III的Kissinger图。 本图经许可转载自参考文献48请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

TGA-DSC-FTIR 分析、热行为图、分解阶段、质量损失与温度关系。
图 10:表 8 中编号为 5 的锂化石墨(即 NMC-Gr-30)的 TGA、DSC 和 FTIR 信号,其中 FTIR 吸收峰在 1,863 cm-1 处对应 EC,在 2,346 cm−1 处对应 CO2 本图经参考文献48 许可 reproduced。 请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

差示扫描量热法和阿伦尼乌斯图用于热分析与动力学研究。
图11:表8中样品编号1、5、9在脱锂状态下的正极材料在5、10和15 °C/min加热速率下的热流曲线,以及峰I、II和III的Kissinger图。 本图经参考文献48许可复制。请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

差示扫描量热法(DSC)图;不同搁置时间下的热流与温度关系。
图 12:从电池中提取的石墨的 DSC 曲线。 (黑色)搁置时间 4 小时,(蓝色)搁置时间 2 天,(绿色)搁置时间 4 天。 请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

电化学性能图;NMC样品的电流-电压随时间变化分析;方法数据。
图13:各种EL电池的电压-时间与电流-时间曲线。a)、(b)、(c):组装/封闭/连接不当的电池的循环特征;(d):正确组装/封闭/连接的电池的循环特征。 请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。

差示扫描量热法图谱,充电与过充电石墨的热稳定性对比。
图14:容量平衡与不平衡电池中石墨的DSC谱图。(蓝色)充电态,(黑色)过充电态。请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

表1:文献中报道的阳极分解反应(在高温条件下)。 EC:碳酸乙烯酯,CMC:羧甲基纤维素,R:低分子量烷基,SEI:固态电解质界面,p-SEI 指电化学循环过程中形成的初级SEI,s-SEI 指次级SEI,可能在热失控初期高温条件下形成。碳酸乙烯酯(EC)和碳酸二甲酯(DMC)是电极中使用的溶剂。羧甲基纤维素(CMC)是粘结剂材料。本表格经参考文献48许可复制。请点击此处下载该表格。

表2:已识别的NMC(111)脱锂正极的分解反应。NMC:锂镍锰钴氧化物,HF:氢氟酸。本表格经参考文献48许可复制。请点击此处下载该表格。

表3:1M LiPF6在EC/DMC = 50/50 (v/v) 电解液中的已鉴定分解反应。PEO:氟化聚环氧乙烷。本表格经参考文献48许可复制。请点击此处下载该表格。

表4:STA测量定义窗口的“设置”选项卡中使用的参数。 请点击此处下载该表格。

表5:以10 °C/min加热速率进行STA测量的温度程序。 请点击此处下载该表格。

表6:用于鉴定析出气体的TG-FTIR光谱测量设置。 请点击此处下载该表格。

表7:排放气体定性测定的气相色谱-质谱参数设置。 请点击此处下载该表格。

表8:STA实验的测试矩阵及所研究电池的主要电化学性能。计算容量基于每个电极上活性物质的实际面载量以及制造商提供的额定容量。实验放电容量由第二次放电循环计算得出。n.a. = 循环文件损坏,因此无法进行SOC计算,但STA测试已完成。*划伤样品在制备过程中丢失。石墨负极的载量由制造商设计为比正极多出10%的活性物质,以避免在双电极Gr/NMC(111)电池结构中发生锂析出。我们的测量结果显示平均过量11%。本表格经参考文献48许可复制。请点击此处下载该表格。

表9:测定的锂化石墨分解反应的热三重态参数及标准误差(st.err.)。采用Kissinger法计算动力学参数(放热量、活化能和频率因子)及其不确定性。由于Kissinger法不适用于峰I,相关数据取自文献。本表经参考文献48许可复制。请点击此处下载该表格。

表10:脱锂NMC(111)分解反应的确定热三重态及其标准误差。标准误差以括号表示。采用Kissinger方法计算动力学参数(放热量、活化能和频率因子)及其不确定性。本表格经参考文献48许可复制。请点击此处下载该表格。

表11:碳酸乙烯酯(EC)蒸发、分解和燃烧的动力学常数。本研究测定了碳酸乙烯酯(EC)的蒸发参数,计算结果及括号内的标准误差已列出。燃烧参数引自参考文献69,70,分解数据基于文献值71。本表格经参考文献48许可复制。 请点击此处下载该表格。

补充文件1:Maccor循环仪中电化学程序的截图。请点击此处下载该文件

补充文件 2:TGA.XPM 程序参数的截图。请点击此处下载该文件。

讨论

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在下文中,根据同步热分析(STA)获得的热行为结果以及联用气体分析系统(FTIR和GC-MS)对热分析过程中释放气体的表征结果,确定并讨论了每个电极的反应机理。

然而,我们将首先讨论该技术的重要方面、可能遇到的陷阱及问题排查方法,以确保从用户角度成功实施该方法。

我们的研究结果表明,提前时间,即 从打开电池到进行STA/逸出气体分析之间的时间(包括所有准备工作)对材料的DSC曲线具有显著影响。这可能与电解液的挥发以及在完全充电的负极表面发生的不希望的副反应有关,该负极具有高反应活性,在痕量氧气和/或水存在下更易发生此类反应。72,73此类效应的一个示例如下所示。 图12,其中比较了铅酸时间分别为4小时、2天和4天的石墨电极的DSC曲线。4天铅酸时间的负极DSC曲线显示出明显更小的放热信号,而4小时和2天铅酸时间的曲线则非常相似。

使用薄隔膜和等直径电极圆片组装手工全锂离子电池单体是一项精细的操作。因此,电池单体的正确组装与封口对于电池成功的电化学循环至关重要,进而影响用于STA/GC-MS/FTIR表征的电极制备效果。例如,电极圆片错位和/或隔膜褶皱可能导致全锂离子电池循环行为发生显著变化74。电池是否正确组装、封装并连接至充放电测试仪,可通过电压随时间变化的曲线进行判断。图13展示了多个有缺陷电池的循环曲线,并将其与正确制备电池的首周循环曲线进行对比。因此,我们认为电池制备过程中的所有步骤均至关重要。

在步骤1.2.1的注释以及方案部分第2段(电极圆片容量的计算)中提到,在组装完整的锂离子电池之前,必须对电极圆片的面容量进行适当平衡。因此,这一方面至关重要,可避免石墨过度充电以及锂金属析出75,76,77图14对比了完全充电和过度充电状态下石墨的DSC曲线,清晰地显示出过度充电对材料热行为的显著影响。过度充电的石墨与电极不平衡组装有关,其中正极的理论面容量(供应商提供:3.54 mAh/cm2)高于负极(供应商提供:2.24 mAh/cm2)。其结果是石墨发生过锂化,多余的Li+传输至石墨基体后可能在表面以金属锂形式沉积。

在启动实验方案之前,我们进行了初步测试。该技术经过优化,以排除问题,从而获得可靠且可重复的实验结果。例如,为EL-CELL电化学电池选择合适的压头对于避免隔膜弯曲至关重要。合适的压头高度取决于电池组件的材料及其厚度78。对于本研究中描述的体系,我们得出结论:压头50比压头150更为合适。因此,在我们的实验中始终采用压头50。

同样,需要仔细优化电解质的用量,以确保所有电池组件得到充分润湿,从而最大程度地避免离子传输受限。电解质不足会导致欧姆电阻增加和容量损失79,80。本研究中所展示的系统的最佳电解质量确定为 150 µL。

关于所提出方法的局限性,其中一些已在论文的引言部分进行了讨论。此外,就质谱分析而言,通常在通过气相色谱(GC)进行色谱分离后,采用电子轰击电离(EI)结合四极杆质谱仪(MS)对分解产物进行分析。这种方法能够识别复杂气态产物混合物中的各个组分。然而,所采用的同步热分析/气相色谱-质谱联用(STA/GC-MS)仪器参数设置限制了检测范围,仅能检测质量数低于 m/z = 150 的小分子分解产物(其中 m 表示分子或原子质量数,z 表示离子的电荷数)。尽管如此,作者认为所选定的 STA/GC-MS 系统参数适用于电极材料释放气体的分析。

另一个潜在的缺点是高沸点产物(如碳酸乙烯酯)在传输管线(加热至150 °C)中可能发生部分冷凝。因此,每次实验后仔细吹扫整个系统对于避免实验之间的交叉污染至关重要。

对于傅里叶变换红外光谱(FTIR),产生的气体通过一条温度维持在150 °C的加热管路,转移至温度为200 °C的热重-红外(TG-IR)测量池中。对逸出气体中出现的官能团进行分析,可实现对气态物质的鉴定。联用热分析-傅里叶变换红外光谱(STA/FTIR)的一个可能缺点是,气态混合物的信号可能发生重叠(多种气体同时释放),导致谱图复杂而难以解析。特别是与STA/GC-MS系统不同,在进行红外吸收分析之前,分解产物未经过分离。

当前的气体分析系统设置仅能识别气态化合物,这意味着该方法为定性分析。事实上,本研究未涉及定量分析,这为后续获取更多化学信息留下了空间。然而,若要实现定量分析,则需要将仪器串联连接而非并联,即 将STA/GC-MS和STA/FTIR串联。这样可最大限度地提高检测灵敏度和准确性。此外,在STA分析后增加气体捕集系统,可在FTIR完成定性表征后,利用GC-MS进行定量分析。可考虑采用如下串联系统:STA/气体捕集/FTIR/GC-MS。另一个值得考虑的方面是,FTIR也可用于定量分析,并对GC-MS获得的定量数据进行交叉验证。但无论采用何种方式,定量分析的实现仍需进一步研究以确定其在这些联用技术中的适用性,而这并非本研究的范围。

尽管本研究为定性分析,但相较于以往工作已有改进,因为如引言部分所述,STA设备位于手套箱内,可确保在保护性气氛中对组分进行操作。此外,据作者所知,目前尚鲜有研究采用STA/FTIR/GC-MS这一精确的仪器组合、分析参数以及样品制备/处理方法,来阐明电极材料在热分解过程中材料层面的化学反应机理。有关该方法重要性的更多细节已在引言部分提供。

我们的研究已证明,这种联用的STA/GC-MS/FTIR技术在电池材料的热表征及释放气体分析方面具有强大能力。显然,该技术可应用于其他类型的材料,例如用于研究新型材料、材料在极端循环条件下的性能等。该技术最终适用于研究材料的热行为及其热分解路径,并分析释放出的气体。此类联用STA/GC-MS/FTIR技术的另一个应用实例是用于含能材料(包括炸药、推进剂和烟火剂)的表征81

锂化石墨的热分解
在低温下(低于 100 °C)时,在约 70 °C 处检测到一个吸热峰,且未伴随质量损失。如前所述,该峰在原始石墨负极与电解液接触时同样可见。该峰的最大温度并不对应于碳酸乙烯酯(EC)的熔点(约 36 °C)或碳酸二甲酯(DMC)的蒸发温度(90 °C)。可能的解释包括 LiPF6-EC 共熔物的熔化,或由微量水分引发 LiPF6 盐分解产生的 HF 释放82。然而,由于该吸热现象与锂化石墨无关,因此在本研究中不予考虑,后续分析中予以忽略。

区域2在约100 °C–110 °C时开始出现少量CO2释放。这一点通过图5中的GC-MS数据以及图4b所示的FTIR结果得到进一步证实,后者显示存在CO2和H2O。固态电解质界面(SEI)是在电池首次充电过程中于负极表面形成的一层保护性薄膜,由电解液在新鲜锂化石墨表面发生分解反应生成。该界面层通过阻止后续充放电循环中电解液的进一步分解以及溶剂分子共嵌入石墨层,从而稳定了高活性的负极表面83。已知SEI层中较不稳定的组分在约100 °C–130 °C的起始温度下开始发生放热分解35,41,61,84,85,这一现象通常被称为初级SEI分解(pSEI)。这与在100 °C以上出现的宽放热峰一致。有趣的是,尽管根据表1中反应3、4和9的预期应有乙烯释放,但FTIR和GC-MS均未检测到乙烯的生成。事实上,根据前述反应,SEI的破裂以及Li与电解液的后续反应应发生在此放热阶段。此外,该温度范围内的质量损失仅为约4 wt%,相对较低,与所提出的反应机制预期的质量损失不符。这一质量变化更可能是由碳酸乙烯酯(EC)蒸发所致,其蒸发起始于约150 °C,这在图4a图4c中FTIR特征吸收峰1,863 cm-1处的信号变化中得以体现。

这些观察结果表明,SEI 层的分解并非如反应 3、4 和 9 所述的单步过程。因此,这些反应未能准确反映区域 2 中的热过程。相比之下,表 1 中的反应 1、2 和 5 可能更准确地描述了在随后的 100 °C–220 °C 范围内发生的分解反应。值得指出的是,接近 100 °C 时释放的 CO2 可能来源于反应 2,即在微量水蒸发时产生的副反应。此外,随着温度升高,SEI 层可能并未完全崩解,而是其结构和组成发生了改变,甚至可能导致 SEI 层厚度增加。轻微的产热、无明显质量损失以及释放的气体表明,表 1 中的反应 2 可能促使 SEI 从绝缘结构转变为多孔结构,从而允许 EC 分子或锂离子与嵌锂石墨表面发生相互作用。然而,这种新形成或转化的膜(称为次生 SEI)仍保持其保护性,这从其放热量远低于区域 3 即可得到证实。通过 XRD 分析发现,石墨中锂的含量在 110 °C 至 250 °C 的升温过程中逐渐降低,表明在此温度区间内发生了锂的消耗86。在考虑反应机理 1 和 5(表 1)所涉及的反应物时,热分解反应 5 最为直接,因此被选用来描述区域 2 的过程。在约 200 °C 处出现的下一个微弱吸热峰,可能归因于 LiPF6 的熔化77,87,或锂的析出,或石墨的剥落88。该相变事件对热失控(TR)的影响可忽略不计,因此在后续分析及热三联体计算中已被排除。

在区域3(240 °C–290 °C)中,随着质量损失显著增加并伴随相应气体释放,产热量的上升表明发生了剧烈的相变。根据热分析结果结合气态物质的性质,多个连续、平行或同时发生的反应路径最有可能共同导致了峰II的形成。关于EC的释放(图 4a图 4c),原始石墨与电解质接触时的 STA 结果表明,在这些条件下,EC 的蒸发速度比 EC 的热分解更快(已测量但未展示)。GC-MS 数据显示存在 PF3 和乙烯在 图6图7,以及 CO2 以及通过FTIR检测到的EC演变图4a)。因此,以下反应路径可能同时发生:a)二次SEI的部分分解,b)锂-电解质反应(电解质中的反应3、4、6、7、8和9) 表1),c)EC分解(反应20, 表3),LiPF6 分解(反应17, 表3)以及EC蒸发(表3)。比较区域2和区域3获得的放热曲线可以明显看出,每个区域发生的热事件性质不同。这与某些研究报道的单一反应机制相矛盾33,35,41 包括SEI膜分解和锂化石墨-电解质反应,如反应3和4所示。此外,我们的研究结果表明,该过程并非单一的热事件,而是一个两步过程。反应6、8和9中详细描述的分解机制更能准确解释区域3中的热事件,这一结论得到了气态CO检测结果的支持。2、乙烯和PF3 (LiPF₆的分解产物)6)。PF3 未被列为任何反应的主要产物 表1表3 但可能在气相色谱柱或加热管路中产生。PF3 未在其他位置产生,因为LiPF的热分解起始温度6 (如反应17所示, 表3预计反应将在 100 °C 至 200 °C 之间发生,具体取决于实验条件(即密闭或开放容器、样品量)89. 这种热分解的产物之一(即 PF5) 经历后续转化,导致POF的形成3,如反应6所示。

区域3的质量损失主要归因于EC的蒸发。根据这些观察结果,区域2和区域3应采用不同的建模方法。因此,我们提出并建立了一种双重分解机制,其中原始SEI并未完全分解,而是发生了结构和组成的改变,同时形成了二次SEI层。随着温度升高,发生第二次分解,二次SEI层发生分解,使得负极中嵌入的锂被消耗。

在区域4中,较小且部分重叠的峰对应于多个分解反应。通过气相色谱-质谱联用(GC-MS)对气体释放进行分析,在图 7中检测到乙烯痕迹,图8中检测到乙烷(C2H6),同时还检测到甲烷(CH4,已测量但未显示)和丙烯(C3H6,已测量但未显示),这些气体仅在升温速率为15 °C/min时可被检测到。对原始粘结剂的单独热分析(已测量但未显示)表明,羧甲基纤维素(CMC)在此温度范围内发生分解。文献90中已有报道,CMC粘结剂与电解液之间存在特定的反应活性,这很可能源于CMC中的羟基官能团(反应12,表1)。该过程可促进构成部分固态电解质界面(SEI)层的物质的形成。这些物质的分解反应热可能高于单独粘结剂的分解热。然而,粘结剂仅占负极材料的2 wt%,仅靠其自身无法引起所观察到的放热现象。另一种可能的解释是,在此前各区域中形成的更稳定产物在继续升温过程中发生后续分解。此外,已有研究揭示,在330 °C和430 °C时,由于锂烷基碳酸盐和草酸锂的分解会引发放热反应43,而这两种组分正是SEI层中的主要物质。由于此时碳酸乙烯酯(EC)已完全蒸发或分解,唯一可能发生的反应是表1中列出的反应6、7、11和12。然而,这些反应无法解释区域4中释放的气体。值得注意的是,与此温度范围相对应的放热过程与区域2和区域3中的过程不同,这一点可通过所生成的气体种类、微小的质量损失、峰形特征以及释放的热量得以证实。尽管如此,此前热事件所产生的分解产物及其含量仍可能影响区域4中的反应行为。

NMC (111) 正极的热分解
与负极在低温下获得的DSC曲线类似,在图10中区域1也观察到约70 °C的吸热峰,尽管在此情况下该峰略不明显。在略高于100 °C时同样检测到CO2的释放。基于负极热分解图谱中的观察结果,这两种现象可能源于相同的机理。因此,该峰未被进一步考虑。

如前所述,区域2中约200 °C处的吸热峰(在图11中以15 °C/min的升温速率下更为明显 )是由于EC蒸发所致。该峰与放热的热事件重叠,使得难以采用Kissinger法对其进行分析。然而,本研究并未忽略这一吸热事件,而是采用了另一种方法。实际上,如阴极部分“代表性结果”中 earlier 所述,使用了不同加热速率下的DTG曲线,以通过Kissinger法计算EC蒸发的反应动力学参数。

在区域3, 图10 表明出现尖锐的 CO 放热峰2 释放以及在240 °C至290 °C之间出现一滴EC的逸出。可能用于描述气体逸出、质量损失和热量释放的反应包括:a) 反应15 表2 含来自分解的 LiPF 的 HF6 与NMC相比,b) 反应19和20用于LiPF与EC的反应6 (PF5)和 EC 热分解,c)EC 燃烧并释放 O2 来自NMC分解91 (反应16和反应13,分别),d)自催化NMC分解,类似于已报道的LCO分解反应33,35,41.

反应15生成了水,但气体分析系统未检测到。此外,该反应不产生CO2排放。因此,在区域3中,该反应不被视为相关过程。选项b)和c)难以区分,因此在后续计算中均予以考虑。主导反应将在下一阶段通过优化该温度区间内的模拟热响应来确定。当将碳酸乙烯酯(EC)燃烧和蒸发的热参数纳入计算时,可获得更准确的模拟热流信号(本文未展示)。在之前的一项DSC研究中,NMC(111)的热曲线在250 °C–290 °C范围内未出现明显的放热峰92。有趣的是,当计算中排除EC燃烧时,模拟结果中的明显放热峰消失,与上述研究结果一致。该明显放热峰的缺失可能与文献92中使用的人工穿孔坩埚有关,较大的开口会促进EC更快蒸发并释放O2。因此,明显的放热峰与EC燃烧(反应16,表3)有关,其中释放的O2来源于NMC的分解(反应13,表2)。

区域4显示出三个放热峰,标记为I-III。当温度达到300 °C时,由于NMC的加速分解,产生了更多的氧气。该热过程与物理吸附氧的释放有关91。在图10中通过FTIR观察到的CO2释放,可能是导电碳添加剂与脱锂正极材料释放的氧气发生反应的结果(反应14,表2)。该反应在350 °C以上减缓,因为物理吸附的氧气逐渐耗尽。第二个放热反应的温度范围与PVDF粘结剂在400 °C至500 °C之间的分解过程高度一致,这与纯NMC粘结剂的DSC测量结果相符(已测量但未展示)。TGA结果显示重量损失在2.97至3.54 wt%之间,与PVDF分解预期的重量损失相匹配。第三个放热过程(对应峰III)与正极中化学键合氧的释放相关91。该氧气进一步与导电碳添加剂反应生成CO2(反应14,表2)。

总体概述
本研究强调了一种特殊的实验设计与样品处理方法的结合,旨在获取锂离子电池(LIBs)电极中热过程的相关信息。由于设备置于充满氩气的手套箱内,从电化学电池的组装、样品制备到热分析仪(STA)中的样品装载等操作均在无意外污染的条件下完成。因此,热参数的测定精度得以提高。电极未经过洗涤处理,以更深入地理解材料层面的热现象及其导致产热的机制,从而可能对热失控(TR)有所贡献。选用带激光穿孔盖的坩埚, 含有一个微小孔洞的 5 µm 直径,仅确保半开放系统,结果相似 与在密闭坩埚中获得的结果相同,但具有可收集气体的优势。

此外,小孔尺寸可能更能准确反映电池内部的热致反应现象,这些反应涉及气体组分,并非立即释放,而是导致电池内部压力逐渐升高。这一现象 与电池温度的不可控上升 共同作用,可能导致热失控(TR)和泄压。另一个显著特点是采用STA/FTIR/GC-MS联用技术对电极材料进行热表征时,温度范围宽广,可达5 °C至600 °C。

根据上述特殊的实验特征和参数,确定了最关键的热过程,并获得了其动力学热三联参数,可用于模拟每个电极的热流信号。

综上所述,提出了一种双重分解机制,以反映发生在负极中的分解反应。同步热分析(STA)、傅里叶变换红外光谱(FTIR)和气相色谱-质谱联用(GC-MS)获得的数据表明,初始固态电解质界面(SEI)层不会在单一过程中完全分解;实际上,此时同时形成了次级SEI层。这些反应通过扩散型分解与生成动力学进行建模。在后续加热阶段,发生第二次分解,表现为次级SEI层的分解、石墨中储存的锂的消耗、碳酸乙烯酯(EC)的蒸发以及EC的分解同时发生。第三个放热过程涉及前一阶段生成的稳定产物以及粘结剂的分解。

NMC(111)正极分解所涉及的热过程包括:EC的蒸发、NMC分解并释放氧气、EC与释放出的氧气发生燃烧、粘结剂的分解以及碳添加剂的燃烧。释放出的O2会立即与碳添加剂发生反应。此外,由于EC的蒸发速率快于其分解速率,因此EC不会发生分解反应。

披露

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作者无任何利益冲突需要披露。

致谢

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作者衷心感谢Marc Steen和Natalia Lebedeva在审阅和讨论本文手稿过程中提供的出色支持。

材料

本文使用的材料清单
姓名公司目录编号评论
手套箱 MB 200BMBraun充满氩气的手套箱,用于确保惰性气氛。  H2O < 0.1 ppm;O2 < 0.1 ppm
 STA 449 F3 Jupiter®Netzsch用于热性能表征的同步热分析仪。STA 设备置于手套箱内。所用炉型:银炉
Agilent 7820A 气相色谱仪 - Agilent 5977E 质谱仪Agilent配备四极杆质谱仪的气相色谱仪。GC-MS 通过加热管线与 STA 耦合,用于鉴定热表征过程中释放的气体
Bruker Vertex 70 V FTIRBruker 傅里叶变换红外光谱仪,配备 TG-IR 接口箱。FTIR 通过加热管线与 STA 耦合,用于鉴定热表征过程中释放的气体
18 mm 石墨电极圆片Customcell363586011石墨电极圆片,面容量为 2.24 mAh·cm-2
18 mm NMC (111) 电极圆片Customcell363662011LiNiMnCoO2 电极圆片,化学计量比为 111,面容量为 2.0 mAh·cm-2
1.0 M LiPF6 溶于 EC/DMC=50/50 (v/v)Sigma-Aldrich746711-100ML电解液
 2325 三层膜隔膜Celgard®薄膜隔膜。应从膜卷上裁切出直径为 22 mm 的圆片
高精度剪切钳EL Cell1)用于第 2 段中裁切未涂层的裸铜箔和铝箔,固定直径为 18 mm。这些集流体与电极圆片来自同一供应商。2)用于裁切直径为 22 mm 的 Celgard 隔膜圆片
ECC-PAT-Core(2014 版本)套件,包含:a)可重复使用的不锈钢(SS)上冲头,b)可重复使用的 50 型(尺寸单位为 µm)不锈钢下冲头,c)一次性聚丙烯(PP)绝缘套管 EL Cell电化学电池组装套件
 Maccor Series 4000Maccor电池循环仪。用于对电化学电池进行两次循环,并随后将 SOC 调整至 100%
带 5 µm 激光穿孔盖的铝坩埚Netzsch6.239.2-64.81.00用于热分析及鉴定循环后电极材料(石墨负极或 NMC (111) 正极)释放气体的坩埚
置于手套箱内的 AE240  型 AE240-S 精密天平Mettler Toledo电池材料称量精度达 µg 级
ABB MetraWatt M2005 型模拟数字万用表Gossen MetraWatt用于第 1.2.6 段中测量新组装的电化学电池

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