Name: electron carriers in cell energy transfer
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T10:09:20.000Z
Duration: 1 min 19 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Florida Department of Education

High School

Physical Science

SC.912.P.8

SC.912.P.8.10

oxidation-and-reduction-of-organic-molecules

Oxidation and Reduction of Organic Molecules

Lebewesende Organismen bauen organische Moleküle in einer Reihe von Reaktionen ab, um Energie zu erzeugen. Viele dieser Reaktionen sind Oxidations-Reduktionsreaktionen oder Redoxreaktionen.
Oxidation ist die Entfernung von Elektronen aus einem Atom, während Reduktion die Addition von Elektronen ist. Da die Anzahl der Elektronen in einer Reaktion erhalten bleibt, finden Oxidations- und Reduktionshalbreaktionen immer paarweise statt.
Wenn ein Molekül in Zellen ein Elektron gewinnt, nimmt es oft ein Proton aus seiner Umgebung auf. Diese Zugabe von Wasserstoff wird als Hydrierung bezeichnet, und das Molekül wird reduziert. Umgekehrt, wenn ein Molekül Wasserstoffatome verliert, handelt es sich um eine Dehydrierung, und das Molekül wird oxidiert.
Protonen und Elektronen können auf elektronentragende Moleküle, einschließlich Coenzyme, übertragen werden.
So werden beispielsweise bei der Dehydrierung von Succinat zu Fumarat Elektronen und Protonen auf das Coenzym FAD übertragen, wodurch es zu FADH2 reduziert wird. Das reduzierte FADH2 überträgt die Elektronen weiter durch die Elektronentransportkette und wird wieder zu FAD oxidiert.

oxidation und reduktion organischer moleküle

Die Energieerzeugung innerhalb einer Zelle umfasst viele koordinierte chemische Wege. Die meisten dieser Wege sind Kombinationen von Oxidations- und Reduktionsreaktionen, die gleichzeitig ablaufen. Bei einer Oxidationsreaktion wird einem Atom in einer Verbindung ein Elektron entzogen, und die Hinzufügung dieses Elektrons zu einer anderen Verbindung ist eine Reduktionsreaktion. Da Oxidation und Reduktion meist gemeinsam ablaufen, nennt man diese Reaktionspaare Redoxreaktionen.

Die Entfernung eines Elektrons aus einem Molekül führt zu einer Verringerung der potentiellen Energie in der oxidierten Verbindung. Das Elektron (manchmal als Teil eines Wasserstoffatoms) bleibt jedoch nicht ungebunden im Zytoplasma einer Zelle. Vielmehr wird das Elektron zu einer zweiten Verbindung verschoben, wodurch die zweite Verbindung reduziert wird. Die Verschiebung eines Elektrons von einer Verbindung zu einer anderen entzieht der ersten Verbindung (der oxidierten Verbindung) etwas potentielle Energie und erhöht die potentielle Energie der zweiten Verbindung (der reduzierten Verbindung). Der Elektronentransfer zwischen Molekülen ist wichtig, da der Großteil der in Atomen gespeicherten und für die Brennstoffzellenfunktionen genutzten Energie in Form hochenergetischer Elektronen vorliegt. Die Übertragung von Energie in Form hochenergetischer Elektronen ermöglicht es der Zelle, Energie schrittweise zu übertragen und zu nutzen – in kleinen Paketen und nicht in einem einzigen, zerstörerischen Ausbruch.

In lebenden Systemen fungiert eine kleine Klasse von Verbindungen als Elektronenshuttle: Sie binden und transportieren hochenergetische Elektronen zwischen Verbindungen auf biochemischen Wegen. Die wichtigsten Elektronenträger, die wir betrachten werden, stammen aus der B-Vitamingruppe und sind Derivate von Nukleotiden. Diese Verbindungen können leicht reduziert (das heißt, sie nehmen Elektronen auf) oder oxidiert (sie geben Elektronen ab). Nicotinamidadenindinukleotid (NAD) wird vom Vitamin B3, Niacin, abgeleitet. NAD^+ ist die oxidierte Form des Moleküls; NADH ist die reduzierte Form des Moleküls, nachdem es zwei Elektronen und ein Proton aufgenommen hat (die zusammen einem Wasserstoffatom mit einem zusätzlichen Elektron entsprechen).

Dieser Text ist adaptiert von <a href="https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/7-1-energy-in-living-systems">Openstax, Biology 2e, Section 7.1 Energy in Living Systems</a>

Oxidation und Reduktion organischer Moleküle

Die Energieerzeugung innerhalb einer Zelle umfasst viele koordinierte chemische Wege. Die meisten dieser Wege sind Kombinationen aus Oxidations- und Reduktionsreaktionen, ...

Education

Lehre

JoVE Core

Cell Biology

Zellbiologie

Unit 1

Einheit 1

Energy and Catalysis

Energie und Katalyse

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

KERNBEGRIFFE UND KONZEPTE

electron carriers in cell energy transfer

Cell energy production depends on redox reactions, which are oxidation and reduction reactions that happen together. In oxidation, an electron is removed from an atom in a compound. In reduction, that same electron is added to another compound. Because these reactions usually occur as a pair, they are called redox reactions.

When a molecule loses an electron, its potential energy goes down. The electron does not stay free in the cytoplasm. Instead, it moves to a second compound and reduces that compound. This transfer lowers the energy of the oxidized compound and raises the energy of the reduced compound.

Electron transfer matters because much of the energy stored in atoms and used for cell functions is carried by high-energy electrons. Cells pass this energy along in small steps rather than in one large burst. That makes energy transfer more controlled and less destructive.

Living systems use a small group of compounds as electron shuttles. These carriers bind high-energy electrons and move them between compounds in biochemical pathways. The main carriers discussed here are derived from B vitamins and are nucleotide derivatives. They can be reduced when they accept electrons or oxidized when they lose electrons.

One key example is nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, or NAD. NAD comes from vitamin B3, also called niacin. NAD+ is the oxidized form. NADH is the reduced form after it accepts two electrons and a proton, which together are the equivalent of a hydrogen atom with an extra electron.

Electron Carriers in Cell Energy Transfer

electron-carriers-in-cell-energy-transfer

the first law of thermodynamics

Energy Changes in Cells and Matter

The first law of thermodynamics describes how energy changes form in the universe. The total amount of energy stays constant. Energy can move from one place to another or change into a different form, but it cannot be created or destroyed. These energy changes happen in everyday life. A light bulb changes electrical energy into light energy. A gas stove changes chemical energy in natural gas into heat energy. Plants also carry out a major energy transformation when they convert sunlight energy...

the second law of thermodynamics

Entropy and Spontaneous Change

Entropy helps predict whether a process will happen on its own. Entropy is a measure of randomness or disorder in a system. High entropy means high disorder and low energy. A student’s bedroom is a simple example. If no work is done, the room becomes messy over time. That messy state is highly disordered and has high entropy. To make the room clean again, energy must be added as the student puts things away. That organized state has low entropy. Processes that increase the entropy of the...

enthalpy within the cell

Cellular Enthalpy and Energy Changes

Cellular enthalpy describes how heat and energy change during chemical and physical processes. Enthalpy is written as H and is defined as the sum of a system’s internal energy, U, and the product of pressure and volume, PV. It is a state function, which means its value depends on the state of the system, not the path taken. Scientists cannot measure the enthalpy of a single substance directly. They can determine enthalpy changes, or ΔH, for a process instead. For reactions or changes that...

entropy within the cell

Cell Energy Loss and Entropy

Cell energy loss and entropy explain why living things need constant energy input. Cells obtain energy, transform it, and use it to do work, but these transfers are never completely efficient. In each transfer, some energy is lost in a form that cannot be used. In many cases, that lost energy is heat energy.

an introduction to free energy

Gibbs Free Energy and Reaction Work

Gibbs free energy describes the usable energy in a chemical reaction. It helps scientists compare how much energy different reactions release. This measurement is called Gibbs free energy, or G, after Josiah Willard Gibbs. The second law of thermodynamics explains why not all energy stays available for work. Some energy is lost in an unusable form, such as heat, and this loss increases entropy. Gibbs free energy is the energy left after that entropy loss is taken into account. Every chemical...

endergonic and exergonic reactions in the cell

endergonic-and-exergonic-reactions-in-the-cell

Cell Reactions That Release or Store Energy

Cell reactions can either release energy or store it for later use. In chemistry, this difference is described by the value of ΔG, or free energy change. When energy is released during a reaction, ΔG is negative. The products then have less free energy than the reactants because some free energy has been given off. Reactions with a negative ΔG are called exergonic reactions. Exergonic means energy is leaving the system. These reactions are also called spontaneous reactions because they can...

the equilibrium binding constant and binding strength

the-equilibrium-binding-constant-and-binding-strength

How Equilibrium Binding Constant Affects Binding

The equilibrium binding constant describes how strongly two molecules bind at equilibrium. It is a useful way to compare binding strength in molecular interactions. This topic focuses on how binding is measured and what the equilibrium binding constant means. A higher value indicates stronger binding, while a lower value indicates weaker binding. Understanding this constant helps explain how tightly molecules stay together under equilibrium conditions. The page also connects the binding...

free energy and equilibrium

Free Energy and Reaction Direction

Free energy and reaction direction are linked in chemical equilibrium. A free energy change, ΔG, shows the driving force for a process. When ΔG is negative, the process is driven forward. When ΔG is positive, the reverse direction is favored. When ΔG is zero, the forward and reverse driving forces are equal, and the system is at equilibrium. The reaction quotient, Q, helps show how close a system is to equilibrium. Q is the numerical value of the mass action expression for the system. It can...

non-equilibrium in the cell

Cells Stay Out of Equilibrium

Cells stay out of chemical equilibrium by constantly using energy and moving materials in and out. Chemical reactions in metabolism are often reversible. They can go in both directions. In one direction, they release energy to the surroundings. In the reverse direction, they absorb energy. The same idea applies to reactions that build and break down cell molecules. Proteins, for example, can be broken into individual amino acids, and amino acids can be used to build proteins again. In a closed...

oxidation and reduction of organic molecules

Cell energy production depends on redox reactions, which are oxidation and reduction reactions that happen together. In oxidation, an electron is removed from an atom in a compound. In reduction, that same electron is added to another compound. Because these reactions usually occur as a pair, they are called redox reactions. When a molecule loses an electron, its potential energy goes down. The electron does not stay free in the cytoplasm. Instead, it moves to a second compound and reduces...

introduction to enzymes

Enzyme Function, Cofactors, and Inhibitors

Enzymes are proteins that speed up biochemical reactions without being used up. Humans have used enzymes since about 7000 BCE, when they fermented sugars to make alcohol without knowing the reaction was enzyme-catalyzed. The word enzyme was coined by Wilhelm Kuhne in 1877. It comes from the Greek words en, meaning “in” or “within,” and zyme, meaning “yeast.” Enzymes work through active sites, which are regions that bind substrates and help convert them into products. Many enzymes also have...

enzymes and activation energy

How Enzymes Lower Reaction Energy

Enzymes lower the energy needed for a chemical reaction to begin. That starting energy is called activation energy, or free energy of activation, and it is often written as Ea. During a reaction, bonds break and new bonds form. In glucose breakdown, for example, bonds between carbon atoms break and release energy because they are energy-storing bonds. Before a reaction can move forward, reactant molecules must reach a high-energy, unstable shape called the transition state. To get there, the...

introduction to enzyme kinetics

Graphing Enzyme Kinetics Data

Enzyme kinetics uses graphs to show how fast a biochemical reaction happens. Scientists measure the initial reaction rate, or velocity (Vo), at different substrate concentrations ([S]). They may also run trials with inhibitors or other molecules that change the reaction rate. The results are often plotted as Vo against [S]. For many single-substrate reactions, the data fits the Michaelis-Menten equation. This equation, named after Leonor Michaelis and Maud Menten, helps estimate the maximum...

turnover number and catalytic efficiency

How Fast Enzymes Work in Digestion

Enzymes can work at very different speeds, and their turnover number shows how fast they convert substrate molecules into products. Turnover number is the maximum number of substrate molecules an enzyme can transform per unit time. For most enzymes, this value is between 1 and 1000 molecules per second. Some enzymes are especially fast. Catalase has the highest known turnover number and can convert up to 2.8×10^6 molecules of hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen each second. Lysozyme has...

catalytically perfect enzymes

Diffusion-Controlled Enzymes and Reaction Speed

Catalytically perfect enzymes are enzymes that speed up biochemical reactions at very high rates. The idea was first proposed by W. J. Albery and J. R. Knowles in 1976. These enzymes have catalytic efficiency values of about 10^8 to 10^9 M^-1 s^-1 and are also called diffusion-controlled enzymes because diffusion of the substrate into the active site is the only rate-limiting step. Examples of catalytically perfect enzymes include triose phosphate isomerase, fumarase, and superoxide dismutase.

introduction to mechanisms of enzyme catalysis

introduction-to-mechanisms-of-enzyme-catalysis

How Enzymes Change Shape to Catalyze

Enzyme catalysis depends on how enzymes bind substrates and how the active site responds during the reaction. Scientists once described this process with a simple lock-and-key model, where the enzyme and substrate fit together in one instant. Research now supports induced fit, a more dynamic model in which binding causes a small change in the enzyme’s shape. That shift helps create an ideal match between the enzyme and the substrate’s transition state, which improves catalysis. The active site...

ligand binding and linkage

Ligand Binding and Allosteric Effects

Ligand binding and linkage describe how one molecule can affect another when it binds to a protein. In this topic, the focus is on how binding at one site can influence activity at a different site on the same protein. This idea is important for understanding protein function in high school biology. It helps explain why some proteins respond more strongly after a ligand attaches. The transcript centers on the connection between ligand binding and linkage, which is a key concept in molecular...

cooperative allosteric transitions

How Proteins Shift Shape Together

Proteins can change shape in a coordinated way during allosteric transitions. In a cooperative transition, one part of the protein affects another part, so the change spreads through the molecule. These shape changes help proteins switch between different states. The shift can influence how the protein works and how it responds to other molecules. Cooperative allosteric transitions are an important idea in protein function. They explain how a small change at one site can lead to a larger...

ribozymes

Catalytic RNA: Ribozymes in Action

Ribozymes are RNA molecules that can act as enzymes. They help speed up specific chemical reactions without being protein enzymes. This makes them an important example of RNA with more than one job in the cell. Some ribozymes can cut RNA molecules, and others can join them together. This shows that RNA can do catalytic work as well as carry genetic information. Ribozymes are a key part of how scientists think about the many roles of RNA in biology. One well-known ribozyme is ribonuclease P,...

atp energy storage and release

ATP Powers Cellular Transport and Reactions

ATP powers cellular transport and many reactions by transferring energy through phosphorylation. ATP is a highly unstable molecule. If it is not used quickly, it breaks down into ADP and inorganic phosphate, and the released energy is lost as heat. Cells use ATP through energy coupling. This means the exergonic reaction of ATP hydrolysis is linked to an endergonic reaction so the reaction can move forward. One major example is the sodium-potassium pump, a transmembrane ion pump that is vital...

atp and macromolecule synthesis

ATP in Building Cell Macromolecules

ATP helps cells build biological macromolecules. These organic compounds are mainly made of carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and small amounts of other elements. The four major classes of biological macromolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Most macromolecules start as small subunits called monomers. Cells join monomers with covalent bonds to make larger molecules called polymers. This building process needs energy, so cells depend on ATP, the...

coupled reactions

ATP Powers Cellular Work

ATP powers many kinds of cellular work by coupling energy-releasing reactions to energy-requiring ones. Some reactions happen on their own and release energy. Others need an energy input to move forward. Cells link these reactions so important processes can still occur. Adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, stores energy that cells can use quickly. ATP hydrolysis is the breaking of ATP, and it releases energy. Cells often use that released energy to drive endergonic reactions, which are reactions...

key terms and concepts

Learn how redox reactions move electrons in cells and how NAD and NADH act as electron carriers in energy transfer for high school biology.

Electron Carriers in Cell Energy Transfer | JoVE K12

cell biology

JoVE Core Zellbiologie veranschaulicht komplexe zelluläre Prozesse in leicht verständlichen und dennoch umfassenden animierten Videolektionen. Diese Sammlung konzentriert sich auf die wesentlichen Bestandteile und Funktionen von Zellen, einschließlich Organellen und Membranen, Zelltransport und Zellenergie. Ergänzt wird sie durch Videos von Wissenschaftlern in Aktion, die die Anwendung der Zellbiologie in realen Forschungsexperimenten demonstrieren.

Classifying Matter by State

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is all around us; the air, ...

States of Matter

Solids, liquids, and gases are the three states of matter commonly found on Earth. A solid is rigid and possesses a definite shape. A liquid flows and ...

States of Matter and Phase Changes

The internal energy of a substance&#8212;the total kinetic energy of all its molecules and the potential energy of their associated forces&#8212;depends ...

molecular-comparison-of-gases-liquids-and-solids

Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

Particles in a solid are tightly packed together (fixed shape) and often arranged in a regular pattern; in a liquid, they are close together with no ...

Differentiate between physical and chemical properties and physical and chemical changes of matter.

SC.912.P.8.1

physical-and-chemical-properties-of-matter

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

The characteristics that enable us to distinguish one substance from another are called properties.

Physical Properties of Matter

A physical property is ...

Phase Transitions

Whether solid, liquid, or gas, a substance&#39;s state depends on the order and arrangement of its particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). Particles in the ...

phase-transitions-vaporization-and-condensation

Phase Transitions: Vaporization and Condensation

The physical form of a substance changes on changing its temperature. For example, raising the temperature of a liquid causes the liquid to vaporize ...

Vapor Pressure

When a liquid vaporizes in a closed container, gas molecules cannot escape. As these gas phase molecules move randomly about, they will occasionally ...

Clausius-Clapeyron Equation

The equilibrium between a liquid and its vapor depends on the temperature of the system; a rise in temperature causes a corresponding rise in the vapor ...

Phase Transitions: Melting and Freezing

Heating a crystalline solid increases the average energy of its atoms, molecules, or ions, and the solid gets hotter. At some point, the added energy ...

phase-transitions-sublimation-and-deposition

Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and ...

Heating and Cooling Curves

When a substance&#8212;isolated from its environment&#8212;is subjected to heat changes, corresponding changes in temperature and phase of the substance ...

Phase Diagrams

A phase diagram combines plots of pressure versus temperature for the liquid-gas, solid-liquid, and solid-gas phase-transition equilibria of a substance. ...

SC.912.P.8.2

The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

Subatomic Particles

Dalton was only partially correct about the particles that make up matter. All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of three smaller ...

The Wave Nature of Light

The nature of light has been a subject of inquiry since antiquity. In the seventeenth century, Isaac Newton performed experiments with lenses and prisms ...

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum consists of all the types of electromagnetic radiation arranged according to their frequency and wavelength. Each of the ...

Interference and Diffraction

Interference is a characteristic phenomenon exhibited by waves. When two electromagnetic waves interact with their peaks and troughs coinciding, a ...

Photoelectric Effect

When light of a particular wavelength strikes a metal surface, electrons are emitted. This is called the photoelectric effect. The minimum frequency of ...

The Bohr Model

Following the work of Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues in the early twentieth century, the picture of atoms consisting of tiny dense nuclei surrounded ...

Emission Spectra

When solids, liquids, or condensed gases are heated sufficiently, they radiate some of the excess energy as light. Photons produced in this manner have a ...

The de Broglie Wavelength

In the macroscopic world, objects that are large enough to be seen by the naked eye follow the rules of classical physics. A billiard ball moving on a ...

The Uncertainty Principle

Werner Heisenberg considered the limits of how accurately one can measure properties of an electron or other microscopic particles. He determined that ...

The Quantum-Mechanical Model of an Atom

Shortly after de Broglie published his ideas that the electron in a hydrogen atom could be better thought of as being a circular standing wave instead of ...

Explore the scientific theory of atoms (also known as atomic theory) by describing changes in the atomic model over time and why those changes were necessitated by experimental evidence.

SC.912.P.8.3

Elements: Chemical Symbols and Isotopes

A chemical symbol is an abbreviation used to indicate an element or an atom of an element. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg. The same symbol is ...

Ions and Ionic Charges

In ordinary chemical reactions, the nucleus &mdash; which contains the protons and neutrons of each atom and thus identifies the element &mdash; remains ...

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Atomic Mass

Atoms &mdash; and the protons, neutrons, and electrons that compose them &mdash; are extremely small. For example, a carbon atom weighs less than 2 ...

Atomic Number and Mass Number

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is its atomic number (Z). This is the defining trait of an element. Its value determines the identity of ...

Explore the scientific theory of atoms (also known as atomic theory) by describing the structure of atoms in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons, and differentiate among these particles in terms of their mass, electrical charges and locations within the atom.

SC.912.P.8.4

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

Electron Configurations

Electron configurations and orbital diagrams can be determined by applying the Aufbau principle (each added electron occupies the subshell of lowest ...

Electronic Structure of Atoms


An atom comprises protons and neutrons, which are contained inside the dense, central&#160;core called the nucleus, with electrons present around the ...

Electron Behavior

Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles that are attracted to an orbit around the positively-charged nucleus of an atom. They reside in ...

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Atomic Orbitals

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution ...

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom is called its electron configuration. We describe an electron configuration with a symbol that ...

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are ...

The Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule

To determine the electron configuration for any particular atom, we can build the structures in the order of atomic numbers. Beginning with hydrogen, and ...

electron-configuration-of-multielectron-atoms

Electron Configuration of Multielectron Atoms

The alkali metal sodium (atomic number 11) has one more electron than the neon atom. This electron must go into the lowest-energy subshell available, the ...

Relate properties of atoms and their position in the periodic table to the arrangement of their electrons.

SC.912.P.8.5

Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert&#xA0;N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and ...

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence ...

Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

Compared to ionic bonds, which results from the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms, covalent bonds result from the mutual ...

Bonding in Metals

Metallic bonds are formed between two metal atoms. A simplified model to describe metallic bonding has been developed by Paul Dr&#xFC;de called the ...

Distinguish between bonding forces holding compounds together and other attractive forces, including hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces.

SC.912.P.8.6

A. A working definition of matter is that it takes up space, has mass, and has measurable properties. Matter is comprised of atomic, subatomic, and elementary particles.

B. Electrons are key to defining chemical and some physical properties, reactivity, and molecular structures. Repeating (periodic) patterns of physical and chemical properties occur among elements that define groups of elements with similar properties. The periodic table displays the repeating patterns, which are related to the atom's outermost electrons. Atoms bond with each other to form compounds.

C. In a chemical reaction, one or more reactants are transformed into one or more new products. Many factors shape the nature of products and the rates of reaction. 

D. Carbon-based compounds are building-blocks of known life forms on earth and numerous useful natural and synthetic products.

Electron Carriers in Cell Energy Transfer

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