A successfully implemented facility IT infrastructure and on-the-fly data processing pipeline will produce the following verifiable outcomes at each stage:
Network and storage
Internal data transfer between the camera controller and storage server should sustain ≥800 MB/s (approaching theoretical 10 Gbps throughput) when measured with tools such as iperf3 or fio. This throughput is sufficient to transfer a 10–12 GB movie stack from the detector in under 15 seconds, ensuring that storage writing does not create a bottleneck during high-speed EER data collection. ZFS storage pool utilization and per-pool IOPS should be monitored daily; healthy pools show no degraded or faulted VDEVs and consistent read speeds of ≥500 MB/s for sequential reads.
On-the-fly preprocessing
The on-the-fly workflow should process each new movie—including motion correction, CTF estimation, and particle picking—within seconds of it being written to disk, thereby keeping pace with modern detector frame rates, such as the TFS Falcon 4i, operating at 5–15 movies per minute (considering 10–100 Gbps network connections and switches). For a 24 h SPA session generating ~8,000–12,000 micrographs at 150,000x magnification with the selected detector, the pipeline should deliver approximately 200,000–800,000 picked particles, a median CTF fit resolution of 3.0–5 Å, and an initial set of 2D class averages showing clear secondary structural features (alpha-helices, beta-strands) by 4–6 h into the session.
2D and 3D processing benchmarks
With 4x NVIDIA RTX 4090 GPUs per compute node and a dataset of 500,000 particles, CryoSPARC 2D classification (200 classes, 25 iterations) should complete in approximately 30–60 min. Ab initio 3D reconstruction from 100,000 particles should complete in 15–30 min. Full 3D refinement of a 300 kDa complex to near-atomic resolution typically requires 2–8 h, depending on particle count and target resolution. These benchmarks serve as a baseline for detecting performance regressions caused by hardware failures or resource contention.
Facility performance metrics
A well-functioning facility should track the following key performance indicators (KPIs) monthly: (a) instrument uptime percentage (target: >90%); (b) fraction of sessions with on-the-fly pipeline active from session start (target: 100%); (c) storage utilization and growth rate; (d) number of active users and projects; (e) number of structures deposited to EMDB/PDB; (f) fraction of sessions producing publishable-quality 2D classes. These metrics provide objective evidence of operational success and support facility reporting to funding agencies.

Figure 1: Overview of the cryo-EM facility data flow architecture. Schematic illustration of the complete data path from electron detector to final deposited structure. Raw movie frames are written from the camera controller to high-performance NFS storage via the 10 Gbps facility network switch. GPU compute nodes mount the same storage share and begin on-the-fly preprocessing (motion correction → CTF estimation → particle picking → 2D classification) concurrently with data collection. Preprocessed outputs and final 3D reconstructions are stored on the same or secondary storage pool. Remote users access compute resources and storage through an institutional VPN and approved remote desktop software. External data delivery is performed through an authenticated transfer service or by shipping physical storage media. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.

Figure 2: Minimal network topology for a small cryo-EM facility. All data acquisition and processing devices—camera controller, microscope controller, storage servers (>1 PB capacity), and GPU compute servers (N nodes)—are connected via a central 10 Gbps (or faster) managed network switch. The switch uplinks to the institutional internet/WAN for remote access. Remote data processing and remote monitoring are accessible over the public internet via VPN. Storage capacity shown is representative for a single-microscope, 20-user facility operating for 3–6 months. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
| Manufacturer | Model | kVmax | Electron Source | Compatible DEDs | Primary Applications | Strengths | Limitations/Notes |
| Thermo Fisher Scientific | Krios G4/Krios 5 | 300 kV | XFEG/CFEG | Falcon 4i, Falcon 3EC, Gatan K3/K2 | SPA, cryo-ET/STA, MicroED | Gold-standard platform, full automation (EPU), highest throughput, best for high-res (<2.5 Å) | Highest cost, infrastructure demanding |
| Glacios 2 | 200 kV | XFEG | Falcon 4i, Falcon 4, Gatan K3 | SPA, cryo-ET, MicroED | Strong performance at lower cost, compact footprint, high accessibility | Lower ultimate resolution vs 300 kV |
| Talos Arctica | 200 kV | XFEG | Falcon 3, Falcon 4, Gatan K2/K3 | SPA, cryo-ET | Proven, robust, widely adopted | Older generation, less automation |
| Talos L120C | 120 kV | LaB6 | Ceta CMOS (limited DED) | Screening, MicroED (limited) | Cost-effective, training/screening | Not suitable for high-resolution SPA |
| JEOL | CRYO ARM 300 II (JEM-Z300FSC) | 300 kV | CFEG | Gatan K3/K2, Direct Electron DE64 | SPA, cryo-ET/STA, MicroED | Cold FEG (high coherence), top-tier resolution, strong optics | Less integrated ecosystem |
| CRYO ARM 200 | 200 kV | CFEG | Gatan K3/K2, DE64 | SPA, cryo-ET | Excellent performance-cost ratio, high stability | Fewer turnkey automation tools |
| JEM-3200FSC | 300 kV | FEG | Gatan K2/K3, DE20 | SPA, cryo-ET | Large installed base, proven | Legacy system, aging support |
| Hitachi High-Tech | HF8300 | 300 kV | FEG | Gatan K3/K2, DE64 (custom integration) | SPA, cryo-ET | High-voltage capability, flexible integration | Limited adoption in structural biology |
| HT7800 | 120 kV | LaB6 | CMOS, limited DED | Screening, MicroED | Reliable screening scope | Not suitable for high-resolution cryoEM |
| SU9000 (TEM/STEM) | 200 kV | CFEG | Limited cryo-compatible DEDs | Niche cryo, materials | Advanced optics | Not widely used for SPA/ET |
Table 1: Comparison of current cryo-TEM platforms and recommended DEDs. Summary of commercially available cryo-TEMs organized by manufacturer (ThermoFisher Scientific, JEOL, Hitachi), including model name, maximum accelerating voltage (kVmax), compatible DEDs for cryogenic operation, and primary imaging applications (SPA, STA/cryo-ET, microED). Intended as a planning reference; consult manufacturers for current specifications. Abbreviations: DED = direct electron detector; XFEG = extreme field emission gun; CFEG = cold field emission gun; FEG = field emission gun; SPA = single-particle analysis; cryo-ET = cryo-electron tomography; STA = subtomogram averaging; MicroED = micro-electron diffraction; TEM = transmission electron microscope; STEM = scanning transmission electron microscope.
| Detector | Vendor | Key Features | Typical Pairing | Best Use Case |
| Falcon 4i | Thermo Fisher Scientific | EER mode, very high frame rate, high DQE | Krios, Glacios | High-throughput SPA, cryo-ET |
| Gatan K3 | Gatan (AMETEK) | Counting mode, large FOV, super-resolution | JEOL + Thermo | High-resolution SPA (standard) |
| Gatan K2 | Gatan | Previous-gen counting detector | Legacy systems | Established pipelines |
| DE64 | Direct Electron | Large sensor, high throughput | JEOL, selected Thermo | Cryo-ET, large field-of-view |
| Apollo | Direct Electron | High frame rate, high throughput | Krios, Glacios, JEOLs | SPA and microED |
Table 2: Current available DEDs in the market. Summary of commercially available DEDs organized by manufacturer. Abbreviations: EER = Electron Event Register; DQE = detective quantum efficiency; FOV = field of view; SPA = single-particle analysis; cryo-ET = cryo-electron tomography; microED = micro-electron diffraction.
| Software | Main Function | Key Features | Reference |
| RELION | End-to-end SPA processing | Bayesian refinement, classification, CTF refinement | 7, 12, 13 |
| cryoSPARC | End-to-end SPA | Fast GPU pipelines, ab initio reconstruction | 11 |
| EMAN2 | Image processing suite | Reconstruction, heterogeneity analysis (e2gmm) | 14 |
| cisTEM | SPA processing | User-friendly GUI, refinement and validation | 15 |
| SPHIRE | SPA (SPARX-based) | High-resolution refinement workflows | 16 |
| cryoDRGN | Heterogeneity analysis | Deep learning latent space reconstruction | 17 |
| Topaz | Particle picking | Deep learning-based picking | 18 |
| crYOLO | Particle picking | Real-time neural network picking | 16 |
| Warp | Preprocessing | Motion correction, CTF estimation, real-time processing | 19 |
| Model Angelo | Model building | Automated model building from maps | 20 |
| cryoET + STA | | | |
| Software | Main Function | Key Features | Reference |
| IMOD | Tilt-series alignment & reconstruction | Gold standard for tomogram reconstruction | 21 |
| Dynamo | STA | Geometry-based particle picking, flexible workflows | 22 |
| emClarity | STA refinement | High-resolution STA, template matching | 23 |
| RELION (ET module) | STA refinement | Bayesian STA, integration with SPA workflows | 24 |
| EMAN2 (SPT) | STA | Subtomogram refinement tools | 14 |
| Warp/M | Preprocessing + STA | Real-time tomographic preprocessing | 19 |
| AreTomo | Tomogram reconstruction | Fast alignment and reconstruction | 25 |
| PEET | STA | Subtomogram averaging (IMOD-based) | 26 |
| PyTom | STA | Template matching, classification | 27 |
| Tomo3D | Reconstruction | Fast GPU tomogram reconstruction | 28 |
| crYOLO (3D) | Particle picking | ML-based picking in tomograms | 16 |
| AITom | AI-based analysis | Deep learning for segmentation and classification | 29 |
| MicroED |
| Software | Main Function | Key Features | Reference |
| DIALS | Diffraction processing | Integration of diffraction data | 30 |
| XDS | Data processing | Indexing and integration of diffraction data | 31 |
| MOSFLM | Data processing | Crystallography indexing | 32 |
| SHELX | Structure solution | Phasing and refinement | 33 |
| Phenix | Structure refinement | Automated model building | 34 |
| COOT | Model building | Manual model correction | 35 |
Table 3: Examples of commonly used software packages for SPA, cryo-ET, STA, and microED. Summary of commercially and publicly available software packages. Abbreviations: SPA = single-particle analysis; cryo-ET = cryo-electron tomography; STA = subtomogram averaging; MicroED = micro-electron diffraction; CTF = contrast transfer function; GUI = graphical user interface; ML = machine learning.
| Category | Software | Type | Primary Function | Key Features / Role in Facility |
| Operating System | Linux (Ubuntu, CentOS/Rocky) | OS | Core compute environment | HPC standard, GPU support, scripting, cluster deployment |
| Operating System | Windows | OS | User interface / workstation OS | Compatibility with vendor software, remote desktop access |
| File System | ZFS | File system | Data storage & integrity | Snapshots, redundancy, data integrity (checksums), scalable storage |
| Network File Sharing | NFS | Protocol | Linux-based file sharing | High-performance sharing across compute nodes |
| Network File Sharing | SMB (CIFS) | Protocol | Cross-platform file sharing | Windows–Linux interoperability |
| Remote Access | Microsoft Remote Desktop (RDP) | Remote access | GUI-based remote control | Native Windows remote access |
| Remote Access | NoMachine | Remote access | High-performance remote desktop | Fast GPU-enabled visualization, widely used in cryoEM |
| Remote Access | TeamViewer | Remote access | Remote support/access | Easy setup, cross-platform support |
| Remote Access | VirtualGL + TurboVNC | Remote visualization | GPU-accelerated remote rendering | Essential for remote cryoSPARC/RELION visualization |
| GPU Computing | CUDA | Compute framework | GPU acceleration | Required for cryoSPARC, RELION, deep learning tools |
| Data Transfer | Globus | Data transfer | Secure large-scale transfer | High-speed, fault-tolerant data movement across institutions |
Table 4: Software reference for cryo-EM facility IT operations and data processing. Reference list of key software tools covering operating systems (Linux, Windows), file systems (ZFS), network file sharing (NFS, SMB), remote access (Microsoft RDP, NoMachine, TeamViewer, VirtualGL/TurboVNC), GPU computing (CUDA), and data transfer (Globus). Abbreviations: OS = operating system; HPC = high-performance computing; NFS = Network File System; SMB = Server Message Block; CIFS = Common Internet File System; RDP = Remote Desktop Protocol; GUI = graphical user interface.