Lac-Phe improves cardiac function in diabetic cardiomyopathy mice
We induced DCM in C57BL/6J mice using an HFD combined with STZ injections (Figure 1A) and randomly assigned the successfully established DCM mice to an untreated group (DCM group) and a Lac-Phe treatment group, with control C57BL/6J mice serving as the negative control. According to the study by Li et al.21, we selected 50 mg/kg as the therapeutic dose of Lac-Phe. After successful model establishment, the Lac-Phe treatment group received four weeks of exogenous Lac-Phe injections, while the untreated group received injections of an equivalent volume of saline. Compared with the DCM group, mice with diabetic cardiomyopathy treated with Lac-Phe exhibited a significant reduction in body weight after four weeks (Figure 1B). OGTT revealed that, compared with the negative control group, mice in the DCM group had significantly elevated blood glucose levels at all measured time points, indicating impaired glucose tolerance. In contrast, DCM mice treated with Lac-Phe showed improved glucose tolerance (Figure 1C). Echocardiographic analysis revealed that, compared with negative control mice, mice with DCM exhibited significantly reduced LVEF and FS (Figure 1D–F). Treatment with Lac-Phe increased LVEF and FS in DCM mice. Histopathological analysis using H&E staining showed pathological hypertrophy in the cardiac tissue of DCM mice compared with control mice (Figure 1G). Lac-Phe treatment markedly alleviated myocardial hypertrophy. Masson’s trichrome staining further demonstrated that Lac-Phe significantly alleviated myocardial fibrosis in DCM hearts (Figure 1H,I). WGA staining indicated that Lac-Phe significantly reduced the cross-sectional area of cardiomyocytes in DCM hearts (Figure 1J,K). These experiments demonstrate that exogenous administration of Lac-Phe effectively improves cardiac function and ameliorates pathological remodeling in mice with DCM.
Lac-Phe ameliorates dysregulated lipid metabolism in DCM
To further elucidate the mechanism of Lac-Phe in DCM, we performed transcriptomic analysis of mouse cardiac tissues. Following data acquisition, GO and KEGG pathway analyses were conducted. GSEA of the fatty acid metabolic process and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis indicated alterations in pathways related to lipid metabolism (Figure 2A,B). To further investigate how Lac-Phe functions in the hearts of DCM mice, we conducted TEM analysis (Figure 2C,D) to examine whether Lac-Phe treatment altered the ultrastructural morphology of the hearts of DCM mice. TEM imaging revealed a significant increase in LD density within the hearts of DCM mice compared with control mice, whereas Lac-Phe administration effectively reduced this LD density. Given the established significance of lipid metabolism dysregulation in DCM, we further assessed cardiac lipid accumulation using Oil Red O staining (Figure 2E,F). Histological analysis demonstrated markedly increased lipid accumulation in the hearts of DCM mice, whereas Lac-Phe treatment reduced this lipid accumulation. Lac-Phe treatment also reduced the TC level in the serum of DCM mice (Figure 2G). To select an appropriate dose of Lac-Phe for the in vitro experiments, we employed the CCK-8 assay to measure the viability of H9c2 cells treated with various concentrations of Lac-Phe under HG/PA conditions (Figure 2H). H9c2 cells treated with Lac-Phe at a concentration of 10 μg/mL under HG/PA conditions exhibited the highest survival rate among the tested concentrations. Thus, we selected 10 μg/mL Lac-Phe for the subsequent experiments. H9c2 cells exposed to HG/PA showed significant lipid accumulation, as demonstrated by LD540 staining and fluorescence quantification (Figure 2I,J), and TC content was also increased (Figure 2K). Lac-Phe treatment reversed these changes, significantly reducing both lipid accumulation and TC levels in H9c2 cells. Collectively, these experimental findings demonstrate that Lac-Phe effectively attenuates cardiac lipid accumulation and ameliorates lipid metabolism dysregulation in DCM mice and reduces lipid accumulation and TC levels in HG/PA-treated H9c2 cells.

Figure 2. Lac-Phe ameliorates dysregulated lipid metabolism in diabetic cardiomyopathy. (A) Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) of the fatty acid metabolic process in the Control and DCM groups. (B) Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis comparing the DCM and DCM + Lac-Phe groups. (C) Representative transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of cardiac tissues, with red arrows indicating lipid droplets (LDs). Scale bar = 2 μm. (D) Quantification of the mean number of LDs per 100 μm2; n = 3 per group. (E,F) Representative Oil Red O staining of cardiac tissues (E) and quantification of the relative Oil Red O-positive area (F); n = 3 per group. Scale bar = 20 μm. (G) Relative total cholesterol (TC) levels in serum from the indicated groups; n = 3 per group. (H) Cell viability measured by the CCK-8 assay in H9c2 cells treated with 0, 1, 5, 10, or 20 μg/mL Lac-Phe under HG/PA conditions. (I,J) Representative LD540 staining of H9c2 cells (I) and quantification of mean LD540 fluorescence intensity (J); n = 3 per group. Scale bars = 200 μm. (K) TC levels in H9c2 cells from the indicated groups; n = 3 per group. Data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001, ****P < 0.0001. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Lac-Phe increases HMGCR phosphorylation in the hearts of DCM mice and H9c2 cells
To identify potential targets through which Lac-Phe improves lipid metabolism, we screened DCM-associated proteins using GeneCards28 and predicted proteins potentially interacting with Lac-Phe using SwissTargetPrediction29 (Figure 3A). By comparing the results, we identified six potential target genes (Figure 3B). Analysis of these six genes revealed that HMGCR is a core regulator of cholesterol metabolism and also plays a central role in DCM (Figure 3C)30. To determine whether Lac-Phe regulates lipid metabolism via HMGCR, we first examined the p-HMGCR/HMGCR ratio in mouse hearts. Western blot analysis revealed that the p-HMGCR/HMGCR ratio was decreased in the hearts of DCM mice, whereas Lac-Phe treatment increased this ratio (Figure 3D,E). These findings are consistent with increased HMGCR phosphorylation and reduced HMGCR activity following Lac-Phe treatment. In vitro experiments showed that, under HG/PA conditions, the p-HMGCR/HMGCR ratio was decreased in H9c2 cells, whereas Lac-Phe treatment increased this ratio (Figure 3F,G). These results demonstrate that Lac-Phe increases HMGCR phosphorylation in the hearts of DCM mice and in HG/PA-treated H9c2 cells, supporting the involvement of HMGCR in the effects of Lac-Phe on lipid metabolism.

Figure 3. Lac-Phe increases HMGCR phosphorylation in the hearts of mice with diabetic cardiomyopathy and in H9c2 cells. (A) Venn diagram showing the overlap between DCM-associated proteins and predicted Lac-Phe-associated proteins. (B) Six overlapping proteins associated with DCM and Lac-Phe. (C) Protein-protein interaction network showing HMGCR within the network of DCM-associated proteins. (D,E) Representative western blot images of p-HMGCR and HMGCR in cardiac tissues from the indicated groups (D) and quantification of the p-HMGCR/HMGCR ratio (E); n = 3 per group. (F,G) Representative western blot images of p-HMGCR and HMGCR in H9c2 cells from the indicated groups (F) and quantification of the p-HMGCR/HMGCR ratio (G); n = 3 per group. β-Tubulin was used as the loading control. Data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation. *P < 0.05. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Lac-Phe combined with atorvastatin improves lipid metabolism in H9c2 cells
To further evaluate the effect of Lac-Phe on lipid metabolism via HMGCR, we used atorvastatin as a control. In vitro experiments showed that, under HG/PA conditions, combined treatment with Lac-Phe and atorvastatin produced a greater reduction in lipid accumulation than atorvastatin treatment alone. LD540 staining and fluorescence quantification demonstrated that combined treatment with Lac-Phe and atorvastatin reduced LD accumulation in H9c2 cells (Figure 4A,B). TC content measurement showed a similar effect (Figure 4C). Western blot analysis showed that combined treatment with Lac-Phe and atorvastatin significantly increased the p-HMGCR/HMGCR ratio (Figure 4D,E). These results indicate that combined Lac-Phe and atorvastatin treatment is associated with reduced lipid accumulation and TC levels and increased HMGCR phosphorylation in H9c2 cells.

Figure 4. Lac-Phe combined with atorvastatin improves lipid metabolism in H9c2 cells. (A,B) Representative LD540 staining of H9c2 cells from the indicated treatment groups (A) and quantification of mean LD540 fluorescence intensity (B); n = 3 per group. Scale bar = 200 μm. (C) Total cholesterol (TC) levels in H9c2 cells from the indicated treatment groups; n = 3 per group. (D,E) Representative western blot images of p-HMGCR and HMGCR in H9c2 cells from the indicated treatment groups (D) and quantification of the p-HMGCR/HMGCR ratio (E); n = 3 per group. β-Tubulin was used as the loading control. Data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ****P < 0.0001. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Lac-Phe increases AMPKα1 phosphorylation
To further explore the molecular mechanism by which Lac-Phe regulates HMGCR, we reanalyzed the mouse cardiac transcriptome data. Through KEGG analysis of the transcriptomic data, we identified 160 differentially enriched pathways between the DCM and Control groups and 89 differentially enriched pathways between the DCM and DCM + Lac-Phe groups (Figure 5A). Sixty pathways overlapped between these two comparisons. From these 60 overlapping pathways, we selected the AMPK pathway. AMPK plays a critical role in regulating lipid metabolism in DCM31. Furthermore, AMPK is upstream of HMGCR (Figure 5B). We hypothesized that Lac-Phe might regulate HMGCR by modulating AMPK, ultimately improving lipid metabolism. To test this hypothesis, we first performed molecular docking of AMPKα1 and Lac-Phe using CB-DOCK2. The molecular docking results showed that the best-ranked predicted binding conformation between Lac-Phe and AMPKα1 had an affinity of −7.6 kcal/mol (Figure 5C). These results suggest a potential interaction between Lac-Phe and AMPKα1 but do not establish direct intracellular binding. To determine whether Lac-Phe affects the AMPK pathway in DCM, we examined AMPKα1 phosphorylation in the hearts of DCM mice. Western blot analysis revealed that the p-AMPKα1/AMPKα1 ratio was decreased in the hearts of DCM mice, whereas Lac-Phe treatment increased this ratio (Figure 5D,E). In vitro experiments showed that, under HG/PA conditions, the p-AMPKα1/AMPKα1 ratio was decreased in H9c2 cells, whereas Lac-Phe treatment increased this ratio (Figure 5F,G). These findings indicate that Lac-Phe increases AMPKα1 phosphorylation in DCM mouse hearts and HG/PA-treated H9c2 cells.

Figure 5. Lac-Phe increases AMPKα1 phosphorylation in the hearts of mice with diabetic cardiomyopathy and in H9c2 cells. (A) Venn diagram showing the overlap between pathway enrichment results for the DCM/Control and DCM + Lac-Phe/DCM comparisons. (B) Schematic illustrating AMPK and HMGCR phosphorylation and the associated inhibition of cholesterol synthesis. (C) Predicted three-dimensional molecular docking interaction between Lac-Phe and AMPKα1; binding affinity = −7.6 kcal/mol. (D,E) Representative western blot images of p-AMPKα1 and AMPKα1 in cardiac tissues from the indicated groups (D) and quantification of the p-AMPKα1/AMPKα1 ratio (E); n = 3 per group. (F,G) Representative western blot images of p-AMPKα1 and AMPKα1 in H9c2 cells from the indicated groups (F) and quantification of the p-AMPKα1/AMPKα1 ratio (G); n = 3 per group. GAPDH was used as the loading control. Data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
AMPK inhibition attenuates Lac-Phe-mediated HMGCR phosphorylation and improvement of lipid metabolism in H9c2 cells
We then added a p-AMPK inhibitor to H9c2 cells receiving Lac-Phe treatment. The p-AMPK inhibitor decreased the p-AMPKα1/AMPKα1 ratio (Figure 6A,B) and reduced the p-HMGCR/HMGCR ratio (Figure 6C,D). These findings indicate that inhibition of AMPK phosphorylation is accompanied by reduced HMGCR phosphorylation during Lac-Phe treatment. The p-AMPK inhibitor also diminished the effect of Lac-Phe on lipid metabolism. LD540 staining and fluorescence quantification showed increased lipid accumulation in H9c2 cells treated with the p-AMPK inhibitor compared with cells receiving Lac-Phe without AMPK inhibition (Figure 6E,F). TC levels in H9c2 cells also increased following AMPK inhibition (Figure 6G). These results collectively support the involvement of AMPKα1/HMGCR signaling in the effects of Lac-Phe on lipid metabolism. Lac-Phe increased AMPKα1 phosphorylation, which was associated with increased HMGCR phosphorylation and reduced lipid accumulation and TC levels. Inhibition of AMPK attenuated these effects in H9c2 cells, supporting the hypothesis that Lac-Phe improves lipid metabolism through regulation of the AMPKα1/HMGCR pathway.

Figure 6. AMPK inhibition attenuates the effects of Lac-Phe on HMGCR phosphorylation and lipid accumulation in H9c2 cells. (A,B) Representative western blot images of p-AMPKα1 and AMPKα1 in H9c2 cells treated with HG/PA, Lac-Phe, and/or AMPK-IN-3 as indicated (A) and quantification of the p-AMPKα1/AMPKα1 ratio (B); n = 3 per group. (C,D) Representative western blot images of p-HMGCR and HMGCR in H9c2 cells from the indicated treatment groups (C) and quantification of the p-HMGCR/HMGCR ratio (D); n = 3 per group. GAPDH and β-tubulin were used as loading controls in (A) and (C), respectively. (E,F) Representative LD540 staining of H9c2 cells from the indicated treatment groups (E) and quantification of mean LD540 fluorescence intensity (F); n = 3 per group. Scale bar = 200 μm. (G) Total cholesterol (TC) levels in H9c2 cells from the indicated treatment groups; n = 3 per group. Data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Collectively, the findings from the in vivo and in vitro experiments support a proposed mechanism whereby Lac-Phe increases AMPKα1 and HMGCR phosphorylation, which is associated with reduced cholesterol levels and lipid accumulation and improved cardiac function and pathological remodeling in DCM. The proposed AMPKα1/HMGCR pathway underlying the effects of Lac-Phe is summarized schematically in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Proposed mechanism by which Lac-Phe improves lipid metabolism in diabetic cardiomyopathy through the AMPK/HMGCR pathway. Schematic illustrating the proposed mechanism whereby Lac-Phe promotes AMPKα1 phosphorylation, followed by HMGCR phosphorylation, which is associated with reduced lipid droplet accumulation and lipotoxicity in diabetic cardiomyopathy. AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase; HMGCR, HMG-CoA reductase; LD, lipid droplet. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Data Availability:
The raw data supporting the findings of this study have been deposited in Zenodo and are publicly available at https://zenodo.org/records/21991371