Name: punnett squares for predicting traits
Uploaded: 2019-03-11T09:21:16.000Z
Duration: 1 min
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

Life Science

LS.10

LS.10.c

Punnett Squares

L'échiquier de Punnett, un simple diagramme nomméd'après son inventeur est une manière graphique de prédireles probabilités pour un enfant d'hériterd'un trait génétique comme l'intolérance au lactosed'après le génotype des parents. 
À partir de cette grille, les contributions génétiquesd'un parent homozygote récessifavec des allèles désignés par deux l minuscules,sont placés en haut. 
Ceux de l'autre, hétérozygote à allèles mixtes,représentés par un L majusculeet un l récessif minuscule, sont écrits à gauche. 
L'association des en-têtes des lignes et colonnespermet d'obtenir les deux génotypes possibles etles deux phénotypes d'un enfant. 
50 % de chances d'être hétérozygoteet de tolérer le lactose, et 50 % de chancesd'être homozygote récessif et intolérant au lactose.

Edwards, A. W. F. « Reginald Crundall Punnett : Premier professeur de génétique Arthur Balfour, Cambridge, 1912. » Genetics 192, no. 1 (1er septembre 2012) : 3. [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.112.143552 » target="__blank">Source</a>]

Reid, James B. et John J. Ross. « Les gènes de Mendel : vers une caractérisation moléculaire complète ». Genetics 189, n° 1 (1er septembre 2011) : 3. [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.111.132118 » target="__blank">Source</a>]

Échiquier de punnett

<h4>Aperçu</h4>
 
 Un échiquier de Punnett affiche les génotypes possibles dont la descendance peut hériter à partir de deux génotypes parentaux. Si le modèle héréditaire d’un trait (p. ex., dominant ou récessif) est connu, les échiquiers de Punnett peuvent également être utilisés pour déterminer la probabilité d’hériter un phénotype. Les échiquiers de Punnett sont applicables dans les situations où l’hérédité du trait est déterminée par un seul locus de gène et les traits sont hérités indépendamment. Cependant, ils ne peuvent pas prévoir la probabilité des traits pour des cas d’héritage génétique plus complexes. 
 
 <h4>Les échiquiers de Punnett montrent la probabilité d’hériter d’un ou de plusieurs traits</h4>
 
 Les échiquiers de Punnett sont des représentations visuelles qui montrent les génotypes possibles de la descendance résultant d’un croisement entre deux génotypes parentaux. Ils peuvent représenter la transmission d’un ou de plusieurs phénotypes, ou traits, bien que d’autres outils soient plus appropriés pour étudier la transmission de plus de deux traits.
 
 Les échiquiers de Punnett peuvent être utilisés pour déterminer la probabilité que la descendance hérite d’un génotype précis, ou d’une paire d’allèles causant une caractéristique particulière (c.-à-d. un phénotype ou trait), à condition que le phénotype soit causé par un seul locus génétique et soit assorti indépendamment pendant la méiose. En d’autres termes, les échiquiers de Punnett sont utiles pour déterminer les probabilités de transmission dans les cas de figure où la probabilité d’hériter d’un trait n’impacte pas la probabilité d’en hériter un autre. Bien qu’il existe de nombreuses exceptions à ces hypothèses (p. ex., les traits codés par des gènes voisins sur le même chromosome), ces qualificatifs sont valables pour de nombreux traits de végétaux et d’animaux.
 
 <h4>Les expériences de Mendel ont inspiré la création de l’échiquier de Punnett</h4>
 
 Les échiquiers de Punnett ont été créés au début des années 1900 par Reginald Punnett, plusieurs décennies après que les expériences révolutionnaires de Gregor Mendel sur les plants de petits pois aient révélé les lois fondamentales de l’hérédité. Aujourd’hui, les échiquiers de Punnett sont souvent utilisés pour illustrer les principes qui sont à la base des expériences de Mendel.
 
 Mendel a étudié l’hérédité de plusieurs caractéristiques de plants de petits pois, y compris la forme et la couleur des pois et des gousses, la couleur et la position de la fleur, et la taille de la plante. Mendel a également examiné les traits hérités pour chaque caractéristique. Par exemple, le violet et le blanc sont des traits possibles pour la caractéristique de couleur de la fleur. Chez les plants de petits pois, les fleurs violettes et blanches sont déterminées par des variantes génétiques distinctes, ou allèles, au locus du gène de la couleur des fleurs.
 
 <h4>Les échiquiers de Punnett sont des grilles qui organisent l’information génétique</h4>
 
 Chaque case d’un échiquier de Punnett représente un événement possible de fécondation, ou génotype de la descendance, résultant de deux gamètes parentaux. Les échiquiers de Punnett sont généralement disposés en configurations 2x2 ou 4x4 pour visualiser la transmission d’un ou deux traits, respectivement.
 
 En ce qui concerne la nomenclature, les allèles sont indiqués par la première lettre du trait causée par l’allèle dominant. Par exemple, parce que le jaune est le trait dominant de la couleur du pois, les allèles encodant la couleur du pois sont indiqués avec la lettre italique “ j ”. Les lettres en majuscules et minuscules représentent respectivement les allèles dominants et récessifs. Ainsi, J représente l’allèle jaune dominant et j dénote l’allèle vert récessif. 
 
 Pour créer un échiquier de Punnett 2x2 examinant un trait, un génotype parental est répertorié au-dessus du diagramme, avec un allèle sur chaque colonne. L’autre génotype parental est affiché verticalement à gauche du diagramme, avec un allèle à côté de chaque ligne. Chaque case d’un échiquier de Punnett contient les deux allèles parentaux (un de chaque parent) correspondant à la ligne et à la colonne de la case, représentant un résultat possible de fécondation. Le contenu complet de l’échiquier de Punnett peut être utilisé pour déterminer la probabilité que la descendance hérite d’un trait particulier. 
 
 <h4>Les échiquiers de Punnett sont des outils informatifs pour les conseillers et les éleveurs génétiques</h4>
 
 Bien qu’ils aient été créés il y a plus de 100 ans, les échiquiers de Punnett ont encore plusieurs applications pertinentes. Pour un couple recevant des conseils en génétique, les échiquiers de Punnett peuvent aider à déterminer le risque que leur enfant hérite d’une maladie. Par exemple, si l’un des parents est atteint d’une fibrose kystique (deux allèles récessifs et causals) et que l’autre ne l’a pas et ne la porte pas, leur enfant sera porteur (c.-à-d. aura un allèle causal) mais n’aura aucun risque de fibrose kystique. Les échiquiers de Punnett peuvent également aider les éleveurs d’animaux et de plantes à sélectionner des organismes ayant des caractéristiques précises pour la reproduction continue.
 
 Bien que les échiquiers de Punnett soient utiles dans de nombreux contextes, ils ne peuvent pas représenter avec précision l’héritage génétique complexe. Par exemple, les traits codés par des gènes voisins sur le même chromosome sont souvent hérités ensemble d’un parent, un phénomène nommé lien. Ces traits ne sont pas assortis indépendamment ; ainsi un échiquier de Punnett ne peut pas prévoir avec précision leurs modèles héréditaires. Certains traits, comme la hauteur, sont inappropriés pour les échiquiers de Punnett parce qu’ils sont déterminés par plusieurs gènes et influencés par les conditions environnementales (p. ex., l’alimentation). Les échiquiers de Punnett sont également inefficaces pour prévoir la transmission des traits acquis d’un seul parent.

Échiquier de Punnett

Aperçu

Un échiquier de Punnett affiche les génotypes possibles que la progéniture peut hériter de deux génotypes parentaux. Si le modèle d’hérédité d’un trait ...

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punnett squares for predicting traits

Punnett squares help predict which traits offspring may inherit from two parents. They show possible genotypes, which are pairs of alleles, and can also show the chance of a phenotype, or visible trait, when the inheritance pattern is known. These grids work best for traits controlled by a single gene locus and passed on independently during meiosis.

Punnett squares were developed in the early 1900s by Reginald Punnett. His work came after Gregor Mendel’s pea plant experiments revealed the basic laws of inheritance. Mendel studied traits such as pea and pod shape and color, flower color and position, and plant size. For flower color, purple and white are different traits controlled by different alleles at the same gene locus.

A Punnett square organizes genetic information in a grid. Each box represents one possible fertilization event, or one possible offspring genotype, from two parental gametes. These diagrams are often shown as 2x2 squares for one trait or 4x4 squares for two traits. Alleles are usually written with the first letter of the dominant trait. For pea color, Y stands for the dominant yellow allele, and y stands for the recessive green allele.

To build a 2x2 Punnett square, one parent’s genotype is placed across the top and the other parent’s genotype is placed down the side. One allele goes above each column, and one allele goes next to each row. The boxes then combine one allele from each parent. The full square shows the chances of each genotype and helps predict the trait an offspring may show.

Punnett squares still matter in genetics, counseling, and breeding. Genetic counselors can use them to estimate a child’s risk for inherited disease. For example, if one parent has cystic fibrosis and the other neither has nor carries it, the child will be a carrier but will not be at risk for cystic fibrosis. Breeders also use Punnett squares to choose organisms with useful traits for future breeding.

These grids do have limits. They do not work well for complex inheritance patterns, such as linked genes on the same chromosome, because those genes are not independently assorted. They are also not a good fit for traits like height, which can depend on several genes and environmental factors such as diet. Punnett squares are also not useful for traits acquired from only one parent.

Punnett Squares for Predicting Traits

genetic lingo

Genotype, Phenotype, and Inheritance

Genotype, phenotype, and inheritance help explain how traits and disease risk are passed from parents to offspring. In diploid organisms, including humans, most other animals, and many plants, somatic cells carry a duplicate set of chromosomes. These chromosome pairs are homologous, with similar length, centromere position, and gene locations. Diploid organisms inherit two versions of each gene, one from each parent. These versions are called alleles, and they sit at the same relative locus,...

punnett squares

Punnett squares help predict which traits offspring may inherit from two parents. They show possible genotypes, which are pairs of alleles, and can also show the chance of a phenotype, or visible trait, when the inheritance pattern is known. These grids work best for traits controlled by a single gene locus and passed on independently during meiosis. Punnett squares were developed in the early 1900s by Reginald Punnett. His work came after Gregor Mendel’s pea plant experiments revealed the...

monohybrid crosses

Mendel’s Pea Plant Inheritance Ratios

Gregor Mendel used pea plants to study how traits are passed from parents to offspring. His breeding experiments in the 1850s and 1860s showed that inheritance follows clear patterns. He crossed true-breeding plants that differed in one trait and found that dominant traits can hide recessive traits. Mendel focused on seven pea plant traits, and each trait had two forms controlled by a single gene locus. He noticed that true-breeding plants always produced offspring with the same phenotype, or...

dihybrid crosses

Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment

Mendel’s law of independent assortment explains how two traits can be inherited separately. Gregor Mendel tested this idea with pea plants that differed in two characteristics, such as pea color and pea shape. He used true-breeding parents that were homozygous for both traits but showed different phenotypes. In one example, Mendel crossed round, yellow peas with wrinkled, green peas. The parental generation had RRYY and rryy genotypes. Their first-generation offspring were all dihybrids,...

law of segregation

Mendel’s Pea Cross Ratios

Mendel’s pea plant crosses show how traits can disappear in one generation and return in the next. When he crossed plants, one parental trait sometimes seemed to vanish in the F1 generation and reappear in the F2 generation. Mendel used this pattern to explain why some traits are dominant and others are recessive. He proposed that traits are controlled by alleles, which are different versions of a gene. An organism inherits two copies of each gene, one from each parent. In his model, a...

law of independent assortment

Mendel’s Dihybrid Cross and Trait Ratios

Mendel’s dihybrid cross shows how two traits are inherited at the same time. A dihybrid cross is a cross in which both parents are homozygous for two distinct traits, and the F1 generation is heterozygous for both traits. Mendel used pea plants with round yellow peas and wrinkled green peas as an example. One parent had genotype YYRR, and the other had genotype yyrr. In the F1 generation, every plant showed the dominant traits, so the plants were YyRr and had yellow, round peas. The F2...

probability laws

Inheritance Risk with Sum and Product Rules

Inheritance risk can be calculated with the sum rule and the product rule. The sum rule applies to mutually exclusive events, or events that cannot happen at the same time. The product rule applies to independent events, or events that do not affect one another. These rules describe theoretical probability, which is the chance of an event before it happens. Empirical probability is different because it is based on events that have already occurred. These probability rules are useful in...

test cross

Using Test Crosses to Identify Genotypes

Test crosses are used to identify the genotype of an organism with a dominant trait. A genotype is the pair of alleles inherited for a gene, and alleles are different forms of the same gene. In diploid organisms, including humans, each gene usually has two alleles, one from each parent. An allele is recessive when its effect is hidden by another allele at the same gene location. Pea plants provide a clear example with flower color. White flowers are recessive, because one copy of the purple...

polygenic traits

Polygenic Traits in Human Height

Polygenic traits are traits controlled by more than one gene. Human height is a clear example of this kind of inheritance. Because many genes work together, the final trait can vary a lot from person to person. Researchers have found hundreds of loci, or gene locations, that influence height. There are likely many more that have not yet been identified. Many of these genes affect cartilage in the growth plates of the long bones in the arms and legs, either directly or indirectly. Height is...

pedigree analysis

Reading Family Traits in Pedigrees

Pedigrees are family trees used to track how a trait passes through generations. They help scientists and students see whether a trait is dominant or recessive, whether it is autosomal or sex-linked, what genotypes family members may have, and what phenotypes may appear in future generations. For families with a history of inherited disease, this information can be important for family planning. In plants and animals, inheritance is often studied with crosses. Monohybrid crosses can show...

multiple allele traits

Blood Type and Allele Interactions

Multiple alleles can shape traits through blood type, sickle cell anemia, incomplete dominance, and codominance. Multiple allelism means a gene has three or more allelic forms. Diploid organisms, including humans, usually carry only two alleles for each gene, but many human genes exist in multiple forms in the population. Human blood type is a clear example of multiple allelism. The blood type gene has three alleles: I A , I B , and i. These alleles help determine which blood type a person has...

epistasis

Gene Masking in Rabbit Fur Color

Epistasis describes how one gene can mask or change the effect of another gene. In high school genetics, this helps explain why many traits do not follow a simple single-gene pattern. Instead, alleles at different locations can work together to shape the final phenotype. Mendel studied seven unrelated pea traits, but most traits involve multiple gene interactions. Epistasis often happens when one gene interferes with the expression of another gene. It can also occur when genes are part of the...

nature and nurture

Genes and Environment Shape Height

Genes and environment both shape human height and other traits. Genes are the inherited instructions we get from our parents. Environment includes factors such as diet, stress, and social conditions. Many phenotypes, or observable traits, reflect both influences. Some also show up later in life, including cancer and other diseases. Height is a clear example of this interaction. Scientists estimate that 70-90% of height variation comes from genetic differences among people. The remaining 10-30%...

pleiotropy

SOX10 and Multiple Traits in Pleiotropy

Pleiotropy is when one gene affects more than one trait. The SOX10 gene is a clear example because it can influence pigmentation, hearing, and intestinal movement. These traits may seem unrelated, but they can all be linked to the same gene change. In humans, a deleted region in SOX10 can cause Waardenburg Syndrome Type 4, or WS4. WS4 is an autosomal recessive disorder, which means a person usually inherits two altered copies of the gene. Common signs include a white forelock,...

sex-linked disorders

X- and Y-Linked Disorder Patterns

X- and Y-linked disorders come from mutations in genes on the sex chromosomes. These genes, like those on autosomes, are needed for normal body function. When a mutation causes a biological problem, the condition is called sex-linked. Y-linked disorders come from changes in the Y chromosome. They affect only males, because only males carry a Y chromosome. Mutations in this small chromosome can affect male sexual function and secondary sex characteristics. One example is Y-chromosome...

x-linked traits

X-Linked Inheritance in Families

X-linked inheritance explains how traits on the X chromosome are passed through families. In most mammalian species, females have two X sex chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y. A mutation on one X chromosome may be masked in females by a normal allele on the other X. In males, that same mutation is more likely to show because there is no second normal X to balance it. Traits caused by changes on the X chromosome are called X-linked traits. Color blindness is a well-studied example.

x-inactivation

Barr Bodies and X-Chromosome Balance

Barr bodies and X-chromosome balance help explain how female mammalian cells control gene activity from the X chromosome. The human X chromosome carries far more genes than the Y chromosome. Because males usually have one X chromosome and females have two, females would make twice as many of some proteins without a control system. To prevent that imbalance, female mammalian cells inactivate nearly all the genes on one X chromosome during early embryonic development. The inactive X condenses...

non-nuclear inheritance

Maternal DNA in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

Maternal DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts explains how some genes are inherited outside the nucleus. Most DNA is in the nucleus, but mitochondria and chloroplasts in the cell cytoplasm also carry their own DNA and can copy it independently of nuclear DNA. Mitochondria are found in both plant and animal cells. They are called the powerhouses of eukaryotic cells because they break down glucose to make energy for cellular activity. Mitochondrial DNA has about 37 genes, and many help with...

chromosomal theory of inheritance

How Genes Map to Chromosomes

Genes map to chromosomes, and this idea explains how Mendel’s inheritance patterns work. Gregor Mendel published his pea plant breeding results in 1866. He showed that physical traits follow predictable patterns. At the time, scientists did not yet know that genes existed. Mendel used the word "factors" for the hereditary units he studied. The details behind Mendel’s laws of segregation and independent assortment were still unknown for many years. In the late 1800s, better microscopes and...

key terms and concepts

Learn how Punnett squares predict offspring genotypes and traits, from Mendel’s pea plants to genetic counseling, breeding, and simple inheritance patterns.

Punnett Squares for Predicting Traits | JoVE K12

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Next Generation Science Standards

High School

heredity-inheritance-and-variation-of-traits

Heredity: Inheritance and Variation of Traits

HS-LS3-1

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

Inheritance and Variation of Traits

HS-LS3-1.

Georgia Standards of Excellence

9-12

SB3.b

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.L.16

SC.912.L.16.1

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The student will investigate and understand that organisms reproduce and transmit genetic information to new generations. Key ideas include Punnett squares are mathematical models used to predict the probability of traits in offspring.

Punnett Squares for Predicting Traits

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