Name: maternal dna in mitochondria and chloroplasts
Uploaded: 2019-08-01T09:20:21.000Z
Duration: 1 min 29 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Next Generation Science Standards

High School

Life Science

heredity-inheritance-and-variation-of-traits

Heredity: Inheritance and Variation of Traits

HS-LS3-1

Non-nuclear Inheritance

In eukaryotic cells, mitochondria and plastids, a category of plant cell organelles that includes chloroplasts, reproduce independently in the cytoplasm and they each have their own set of genes that directs their reproduction and function. Mitochondrial and plastid DNA takes the form of small, circular DNA molecules and is referred to as non-nuclear or cytoplasmic DNA. Each organelle carries many identical copies of its DNA, in contrast to the nucleus, where there are typically only two copies of each chromosome.

Further, during cell division, the organelles are randomly segregated into new daughter cells, so the non-nuclear DNA that is passed on does not follow a set pattern. During reproduction in animals and most plants, the cytoplasm in the zygote comes from the egg. Thus, while both parents contribute equally to the nuclear DNA, the non-nuclear DNA is passed down only from the mother. This means that certain traits, such as metabolic disorders resulting from mutations in the mitochondria, can be traced in a matrilineal fashion.

Additionally, some physical traits in plants, such as leaf color, are controlled by non-nuclear genes and are also passed down uniparentally.

non-nuclear inheritance

Most DNA resides in the nucleus of a cell. However, some organelles in the cell cytoplasm⁠&mdash;such as chloroplasts and mitochondria⁠&mdash;also have their own DNA. These organelles replicate their DNA independently of the nuclear DNA of the cell in which they reside. Non-nuclear inheritance describes the inheritance of genes from structures other than the nucleus.

Mitochondria are present in both plants and animal cells. They are regarded as the &ldquo;powerhouses&rdquo; of eukaryotic cells because they break down glucose to form energy that fuels cellular activity. Mitochondrial DNA consists of about 37 genes, and many of them contribute to this process, called oxidative phosphorylation.

Chloroplasts are found in plants and algae and are the sites of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis allows these organisms to produce glucose from sunlight. Chloroplast DNA consists of about 100 genes, many of which are involved in photosynthesis.

Unlike chromosomal DNA in the nucleus, chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA do not abide by the Mendelian assumption that half an organism&rsquo;s genetic material comes from each parent. This is because sperm cells do not generally contribute mitochondrial or chloroplast DNA to zygotes during fertilization.

While a sperm cell primarily contributes one haploid set of nuclear chromosomes to the zygote, an egg cell contributes its organelles in addition to its nuclear chromosomes. Zygotes (and chloroplasts in plant cells) typically receive mitochondria and chloroplasts solely from the egg cell; this is called maternal inheritance. Maternal inheritance is a type of non-nuclear, or extranuclear, inheritance.

Why do mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA? The prevailing explanation is the endosymbiotic theory. The endosymbiotic theory states that mitochondria and chloroplasts were once independent prokaryotes. At some point, they joined host eukaryotic cells and entered a symbiotic relationship&mdash;one that benefits both parties.

Most DNA resides in the nucleus of a cell. However, some organelles in the cell cytoplasm⁠&mdash;such as chloroplasts and mitochondria⁠&mdash;also ...

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KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

maternal dna in mitochondria and chloroplasts

Maternal DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts explains how some genes are inherited outside the nucleus. Most DNA is in the nucleus, but mitochondria and chloroplasts in the cell cytoplasm also carry their own DNA and can copy it independently of nuclear DNA.

Mitochondria are found in both plant and animal cells. They are called the powerhouses of eukaryotic cells because they break down glucose to make energy for cellular activity. Mitochondrial DNA has about 37 genes, and many help with oxidative phosphorylation, the energy-making process.

Chloroplasts are found in plants and algae. They are the sites of photosynthesis, which lets these organisms make glucose from sunlight. Chloroplast DNA has about 100 genes, and many of those genes help carry out photosynthesis.

This kind of inheritance does not follow the Mendelian idea that half of an organism’s genetic material comes from each parent. Sperm cells usually do not pass on mitochondrial or chloroplast DNA during fertilization. The egg cell contributes its organelles as well as its nuclear chromosomes, so zygotes and plant chloroplasts usually receive mitochondria and chloroplasts only from the egg. This is called maternal inheritance, which is a type of non-nuclear, or extranuclear, inheritance.

The main explanation for why these organelles have their own DNA is the endosymbiotic theory. It says mitochondria and chloroplasts were once independent prokaryotes. They later entered host eukaryotic cells and formed a symbiotic relationship that benefited both partners.

Maternal DNA in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

maternal-dna-in-mitochondria-and-chloroplasts

genetic lingo

Genotype, Phenotype, and Inheritance

Genotype, phenotype, and inheritance help explain how traits and disease risk are passed from parents to offspring. In diploid organisms, including humans, most other animals, and many plants, somatic cells carry a duplicate set of chromosomes. These chromosome pairs are homologous, with similar length, centromere position, and gene locations. Diploid organisms inherit two versions of each gene, one from each parent. These versions are called alleles, and they sit at the same relative locus,...

punnett squares

Punnett Squares for Predicting Traits

Punnett squares help predict which traits offspring may inherit from two parents. They show possible genotypes, which are pairs of alleles, and can also show the chance of a phenotype, or visible trait, when the inheritance pattern is known. These grids work best for traits controlled by a single gene locus and passed on independently during meiosis. Punnett squares were developed in the early 1900s by Reginald Punnett. His work came after Gregor Mendel’s pea plant experiments revealed the...

monohybrid crosses

Mendel’s Pea Plant Inheritance Ratios

Gregor Mendel used pea plants to study how traits are passed from parents to offspring. His breeding experiments in the 1850s and 1860s showed that inheritance follows clear patterns. He crossed true-breeding plants that differed in one trait and found that dominant traits can hide recessive traits. Mendel focused on seven pea plant traits, and each trait had two forms controlled by a single gene locus. He noticed that true-breeding plants always produced offspring with the same phenotype, or...

dihybrid crosses

Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment

Mendel’s law of independent assortment explains how two traits can be inherited separately. Gregor Mendel tested this idea with pea plants that differed in two characteristics, such as pea color and pea shape. He used true-breeding parents that were homozygous for both traits but showed different phenotypes. In one example, Mendel crossed round, yellow peas with wrinkled, green peas. The parental generation had RRYY and rryy genotypes. Their first-generation offspring were all dihybrids,...

law of segregation

Mendel’s Pea Cross Ratios

Mendel’s pea plant crosses show how traits can disappear in one generation and return in the next. When he crossed plants, one parental trait sometimes seemed to vanish in the F1 generation and reappear in the F2 generation. Mendel used this pattern to explain why some traits are dominant and others are recessive. He proposed that traits are controlled by alleles, which are different versions of a gene. An organism inherits two copies of each gene, one from each parent. In his model, a...

law of independent assortment

Mendel’s Dihybrid Cross and Trait Ratios

Mendel’s dihybrid cross shows how two traits are inherited at the same time. A dihybrid cross is a cross in which both parents are homozygous for two distinct traits, and the F1 generation is heterozygous for both traits. Mendel used pea plants with round yellow peas and wrinkled green peas as an example. One parent had genotype YYRR, and the other had genotype yyrr. In the F1 generation, every plant showed the dominant traits, so the plants were YyRr and had yellow, round peas. The F2...

test cross

Using Test Crosses to Identify Genotypes

Test crosses are used to identify the genotype of an organism with a dominant trait. A genotype is the pair of alleles inherited for a gene, and alleles are different forms of the same gene. In diploid organisms, including humans, each gene usually has two alleles, one from each parent. An allele is recessive when its effect is hidden by another allele at the same gene location. Pea plants provide a clear example with flower color. White flowers are recessive, because one copy of the purple...

probability laws

Inheritance Risk with Sum and Product Rules

Inheritance risk can be calculated with the sum rule and the product rule. The sum rule applies to mutually exclusive events, or events that cannot happen at the same time. The product rule applies to independent events, or events that do not affect one another. These rules describe theoretical probability, which is the chance of an event before it happens. Empirical probability is different because it is based on events that have already occurred. These probability rules are useful in...

pedigree analysis

Reading Family Traits in Pedigrees

Pedigrees are family trees used to track how a trait passes through generations. They help scientists and students see whether a trait is dominant or recessive, whether it is autosomal or sex-linked, what genotypes family members may have, and what phenotypes may appear in future generations. For families with a history of inherited disease, this information can be important for family planning. In plants and animals, inheritance is often studied with crosses. Monohybrid crosses can show...

multiple allele traits

Blood Type and Allele Interactions

Multiple alleles can shape traits through blood type, sickle cell anemia, incomplete dominance, and codominance. Multiple allelism means a gene has three or more allelic forms. Diploid organisms, including humans, usually carry only two alleles for each gene, but many human genes exist in multiple forms in the population. Human blood type is a clear example of multiple allelism. The blood type gene has three alleles: I A , I B , and i. These alleles help determine which blood type a person has...

epistasis

Gene Masking in Rabbit Fur Color

Epistasis describes how one gene can mask or change the effect of another gene. In high school genetics, this helps explain why many traits do not follow a simple single-gene pattern. Instead, alleles at different locations can work together to shape the final phenotype. Mendel studied seven unrelated pea traits, but most traits involve multiple gene interactions. Epistasis often happens when one gene interferes with the expression of another gene. It can also occur when genes are part of the...

polygenic traits

Polygenic Traits in Human Height

Polygenic traits are traits controlled by more than one gene. Human height is a clear example of this kind of inheritance. Because many genes work together, the final trait can vary a lot from person to person. Researchers have found hundreds of loci, or gene locations, that influence height. There are likely many more that have not yet been identified. Many of these genes affect cartilage in the growth plates of the long bones in the arms and legs, either directly or indirectly. Height is...

pleiotropy

SOX10 and Multiple Traits in Pleiotropy

Pleiotropy is when one gene affects more than one trait. The SOX10 gene is a clear example because it can influence pigmentation, hearing, and intestinal movement. These traits may seem unrelated, but they can all be linked to the same gene change. In humans, a deleted region in SOX10 can cause Waardenburg Syndrome Type 4, or WS4. WS4 is an autosomal recessive disorder, which means a person usually inherits two altered copies of the gene. Common signs include a white forelock,...

nature and nurture

Genes and Environment Shape Height

Genes and environment both shape human height and other traits. Genes are the inherited instructions we get from our parents. Environment includes factors such as diet, stress, and social conditions. Many phenotypes, or observable traits, reflect both influences. Some also show up later in life, including cancer and other diseases. Height is a clear example of this interaction. Scientists estimate that 70-90% of height variation comes from genetic differences among people. The remaining 10-30%...

chromosomal theory of inheritance

How Genes Map to Chromosomes

Genes map to chromosomes, and this idea explains how Mendel’s inheritance patterns work. Gregor Mendel published his pea plant breeding results in 1866. He showed that physical traits follow predictable patterns. At the time, scientists did not yet know that genes existed. Mendel used the word "factors" for the hereditary units he studied. The details behind Mendel’s laws of segregation and independent assortment were still unknown for many years. In the late 1800s, better microscopes and...

Maternal DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts explains how some genes are inherited outside the nucleus. Most DNA is in the nucleus, but mitochondria and chloroplasts in the cell cytoplasm also carry their own DNA and can copy it independently of nuclear DNA. Mitochondria are found in both plant and animal cells. They are called the powerhouses of eukaryotic cells because they break down glucose to make energy for cellular activity. Mitochondrial DNA has about 37 genes, and many help with...

x-linked traits

X-Linked Inheritance in Families

X-linked inheritance explains how traits on the X chromosome are passed through families. In most mammalian species, females have two X sex chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y. A mutation on one X chromosome may be masked in females by a normal allele on the other X. In males, that same mutation is more likely to show because there is no second normal X to balance it. Traits caused by changes on the X chromosome are called X-linked traits. Color blindness is a well-studied example.

sex-linked disorders

X- and Y-Linked Disorder Patterns

X- and Y-linked disorders come from mutations in genes on the sex chromosomes. These genes, like those on autosomes, are needed for normal body function. When a mutation causes a biological problem, the condition is called sex-linked. Y-linked disorders come from changes in the Y chromosome. They affect only males, because only males carry a Y chromosome. Mutations in this small chromosome can affect male sexual function and secondary sex characteristics. One example is Y-chromosome...

x-inactivation

Barr Bodies and X-Chromosome Balance

Barr bodies and X-chromosome balance help explain how female mammalian cells control gene activity from the X chromosome. The human X chromosome carries far more genes than the Y chromosome. Because males usually have one X chromosome and females have two, females would make twice as many of some proteins without a control system. To prevent that imbalance, female mammalian cells inactivate nearly all the genes on one X chromosome during early embryonic development. The inactive X condenses...

key terms and concepts

Explore how mitochondria and chloroplasts pass DNA through maternal inheritance, and why organelle genes do not follow standard Mendelian inheritance.

Maternal DNA in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts | JoVE K12

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new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

Inheritance and Variation of Traits

HS-LS3-1.

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Punnett Squares

Overview

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Monohybrid Crosses

Overview

In the 1850s and 1860s, Gregor Mendel investigated inheritance by performing monohybrid crosses in pea plants. He crossed two plants that were ...

Dihybrid Crosses

Overview

To determine whether traits are inherited together or separately, Gregor Mendel crossed pea plants that differed in two traits. These parental ...

Trihybrid Crosses

Trihybrid Crosses
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Law of Segregation

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Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance

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The Y Chromosome Determines Maleness

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Sex-linked Disorders

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Epistasis

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X-Inactivation

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Dosage Compensation

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HS-LS3-2

Maternal DNA in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

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