Name: digestive glands and enzymes
Uploaded: 2026-08-26T08:20:11.781Z
Duration: 1 min 58 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Alabama Course of Study Science

9-12

Human Anatomy and Physiology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

9-12.HA.1.10

Accessory Organs

- [Istruttore] Gli organi
digestivi accessori secernono

enzimi e altre sostanze nel
tratto digestivo principale

per facilitare la digestione.

Le prime sono le ghiandole
salivari, nella bocca,

che secernono le amilasi.

Questi enzimi iniziano la
scomposizione degli amidi

e degli altri carboidrati.

Gli organi rimanenti
secernono enzimi digerenti

nel duodeno, dove avviene la
maggior parte della digestione.

Il fegato e la cistifellea
lavorano insieme

per distribuire la bile, una
sostanza prodotta nel fegato

che viene immagazzinata e
rilasciata dalla cistifellea.

La bile &#xE8; un miscuglio di
acqua, sali biliari, colesterolo

e bilirubina, un prodotto
di scarto dell&#x27;emoglobina.

I sali biliari sono sia
idrofobici che idrofilici,

il che aiuta a emulsionare
grandi masse di grasso

in masse pi&#xF9; piccole.

Le lipasi dal pancreas possono idrolizzare

i grassi dietetici in
acidi grassi e gliceridi.

Inoltre, gli enzimi
pancreatici, come la tripsina

e la chimotripsina, rompono
le proteine in peptidi

che vengono catabolizzati in amminoacidi.

L&#x27;amilase, che digerisce i carboidrati,

&#xE8; rilasciata anch&#x27;essa dal pancreas.

Infine, il pancreas secerne
il bicarbonato nel duodeno

per neutralizzare il chimo,
un miscuglio di cibo e acidi

gastrici, e protegge
l&#x27;intestino dall&#x27;acidit&#xE0;.

Njeze, Gabriel E. "Calcoli biliari". Nigerian Journal of Surgery: pubblicazione ufficiale della Nigerian Surgical Research Society 19, n. 2 (2013): 49–55. [<a href="https://doi.org/10.4103/1117-6806.119236" target="__blank">Sorgente</a>]

Ianiro, Gianluca, Silvia Pecere, Valentina Giorgio, Antonio Gasbarrini e Giovanni Cammarota. "Integrazione di enzimi digestivi nelle malattie gastrointestinali". Current Drug Metabolism 17, n. 2 (febbraio 2016): 187–93. [<a href="https://doi.org/10.2174/138920021702160114150137" target="__blank">Sorgente</a>]

organi accessori

Gli organi accessori sono quelli che partecipano alla digestione degli alimenti ma non entrano in contatto diretto con essi, a differenza della bocca, dello stomaco o dell&#x2019;intestino. Gli organi accessori secernono secrezioni digestive nel tratto digerente per facilitare la scomposizione degli alimenti.
Ghiandole salivari
Le ghiandole salivari secernono saliva&#x2014;un liquido complesso contenente, tra gli altri componenti, acqua, muco e amilasi. L&#x2019;amilasi &#xE8; un enzima digestivo che inizia a scomporre gli amidi e altri carboidrati ancora prima che raggiungano lo stomaco.
Fegato, cistifellea e pancreas
Il fegato, la cistifellea e il pancreas sono gli altri organi accessori coinvolti nella digestione. Il fegato e la cistifellea secernono la bile, mentre il pancreas secerne enzimi digestivi nel duodeno attraverso il dotto pancreatico. Il fegato e la cistifellea collaborano per rilasciare la bile nel duodeno. Il fegato produce la bile, ma questa viene immagazzinata nella cistifellea per essere secreta quando necessario.
La bile &#xE8; una miscela di acqua, sali biliari, colesterolo e bilirubina. I sali biliari contengono regioni idrofobiche e regioni idrofile, che consentono loro di interagire sia con i grassi sia con l&#x2019;acqua. Pertanto, essi scompongono i grandi globuli di grasso in globuli pi&#xF9; piccoli&#x2014;un processo chiamato emulsificazione. La bilirubina &#xE8; un prodotto di scarto che si accumula quando il fegato scompone l&#x2019;emoglobina proveniente dai globuli rossi. La globina e il ferro vengono riciclati, mentre l&#x2019;eme viene convertito in bilirubina ed escreto nella bile. &#xC8; la presenza della bilirubina che conferisce alle feci il colore marrone.
I calcoli biliari sono aggregati di bile che si formano nella cistifellea o nei dotti biliari ad essa collegati. I calcoli di colesterolo sono costituiti principalmente dal colesterolo presente nella bile. I calcoli pigmentari si formano dalla bilirubina. La maggior parte dei calcoli si forma senza dare sintomi; tuttavia, se un calcolo si incastra nel dotto biliare, possono manifestarsi sintomi gravi, come l&#x2019;infiammazione della cistifellea o del pancreas, febbre, vomito e ittero. La colecistectomia&#x2014;l&#x2019;asportazione della cistifellea&#x2014;&#xE8; il trattamento principale e la sua rimozione comporta minimi effetti collaterali a lungo termine.
Pancreas
Il pancreas secerne diversi enzimi. La lipasi scompone i trigliceridi in acidi grassi e monogliceridi. La tripsina e la chimotripsina catabolizzano le proteine trasformandole in peptidi. La carbossipeptidasi scompone quindi tali peptidi in singoli amminoacidi. Il pancreas rilascia anche amilasi per digerire gli eventuali carboidrati rimanenti.

Organi accessori

Accessory organs are those that participate in the digestion of food but do not come into direct contact with it like the mouth, stomach, or intestine do. ...

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Education

Didattica

JoVE Core

Biology

Biologia

Genetics

Genetica

Nutrition and Digestion

Nutrizione e Digestione

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

TERMINI E CONCETTI CHIAVE

digestive glands and enzymes

Digestive glands and accessory organs help break down food even though food does not pass through them. They add enzymes and other fluids to the digestive tract to support digestion.

The salivary glands release saliva, a fluid that contains water, mucus, and amylase. Amylase is a digestive enzyme that starts breaking down starches and other carbohydrates before food reaches the stomach.

The liver, gallbladder, and pancreas also support digestion. They send their secretions into the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine, through channels called the biliary tree. The liver makes bile, and the gallbladder stores it until it is needed.

Bile is made of water, bile salts, cholesterol, and bilirubin. Bile salts have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions, so they can interact with fat and water. This lets bile emulsify large fat globules into smaller droplets. Bilirubin is a waste product that forms when the liver breaks down hemoglobin from red blood cells. The globin is recycled, and the heme, which contains iron, leaves the body in bile. Bilirubin also gives feces its brown color.

Gallstones are bile masses that can form in the gallbladder or in nearby bile ducts. Cholesterol stones are made mostly of cholesterol from bile, while pigment stones contain bilirubin. Many stones cause no symptoms, but a stone that blocks a bile duct can lead to serious problems such as gallbladder or pancreas inflammation, fever, vomiting, and jaundice. The main treatment is cholecystectomy, which is the removal of the gallbladder, and it usually has few long-term side effects.

The pancreas releases several enzymes into the small intestine. Lipase breaks smaller fat droplets into fatty acids and triglycerides. Trypsin and chymotrypsin break proteins into peptides, and carboxypeptidase breaks those peptides into individual amino acids. The pancreas also releases amylase to digest any remaining carbohydrates.

Digestive Glands and Enzymes

overview of human digestion

Saliva, Stomach Acid, and Gut Health

The human digestive system is monogastric, which means the stomach has one chamber for digestion. Several other animals also have monogastric digestive systems, including pigs, horses, dogs, and birds. This chapter focuses on the human digestive system. Saliva is a watery fluid released by the salivary glands into the mouth. It is about 99.5% water and also contains electrolytes, mucus, white blood cells, epithelial cells, enzymes, and antimicrobial agents. The enzymes in saliva begin...

anatomy of the intestines

Small and Large Intestine Functions

The small and large intestines complete digestion and absorb nutrients, water, and electrolytes. They are two structurally distinct organs with different shapes and jobs. Together, they move food material from the stomach toward elimination. The small intestine is about 7 meters long and has an inner diameter of only 2.5 cm. Most nutrient absorption happens here, so its inner lining is highly folded and covered with villi, which are finger-like projections. Each villus contains hundreds of...

accessory organs

Digestive glands and accessory organs help break down food even though food does not pass through them. They add enzymes and other fluids to the digestive tract to support digestion. The salivary glands release saliva, a fluid that contains water, mucus, and amylase. Amylase is a digestive enzyme that starts breaking down starches and other carbohydrates before food reaches the stomach. The liver, gallbladder, and pancreas also support digestion. They send their secretions into the duodenum,...

carbohydrate digestion

Carbohydrate Breakdown in the Digestive Tract

Carbohydrate digestion breaks food carbohydrates into saccharides, or sugars, that the body can use for energy. It begins in the mouth during mastication, which means chewing. The masticated carbohydrates then pass through the stomach without being broken down further. Digestion starts again in the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. There, pancreatic alpha-amylase and brush border enzymes on the microvilli help convert complex carbohydrates into monosaccharides. These simple...

protein digestion

Protein Breakdown and Amino Acid Use

Protein digestion starts in the stomach, where strong acid helps unfold protein structure and expose peptide bonds in polypeptide chains. Digestive enzymes then begin breaking those chains into smaller pieces that can be processed by the body. Pepsin is a protease, which means it is a protein-digesting enzyme. It is made in the stomach and works with chymotrypsin and trypsin, enzymes released in the small intestine. These enzymes cut specific links between amino acids and form shorter...

lipid digestion

Lipases and Bile in Fat Breakdown

Lipases and bile help the body break down lipids, which are large molecules that do not mix well with water. Because most digestive enzymes are water-based, lipids need special steps before the body can use them. Lingual lipase is an enzyme made by acinar cells in the sublingual gland. It is found in saliva, but it has only a small role in the mouth. Its best pH, or acidity level, is 3.5-6.0, so it becomes active after chewed food reaches the acidic stomach. Gastric lipase is another acidic...

neural regulation

Brain and Gut Control of Digestion

Brain and gut control digestion through a cephalic phase and the enteric nervous system. The cephalic phase begins when the brain sees or smells food. It sends impulses through cranial nerves to the salivary glands and stomach so the body is ready to eat. This first response is a conditioned, or learned, reaction to familiar foods. Appetite also changes the response. People may make more saliva and hear more stomach rumbling when they think about apple pie than broccoli. The hypothalamus and...

hormonal regulation

Digestive Hormones and Stomach Control

Digestive hormones control when the stomach makes acid and when food moves into the small intestine. They work with the neuroendocrine system, which links nerve signals and hormone release during digestion. In the stomach, proteins are detected by sensory neurons in the enteric nervous system. This stimulates the pyloric gland to release gastrin. Gastrin then helps trigger histamine release, and together they start hydrochloric acid production. The acid helps break food down into chyme. As the...

key terms and concepts

Learn how the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas add enzymes and bile to digest carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

Digestive Glands and Enzymes | JoVE K12

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JoVE Core Biologia illustra i concetti chiave della biologia grazie a oltre 300 video-lezioni animate, concise e di facile comprensione. Inoltre, negli oltre 150 video di "scienziati in azione", i concetti scientifici vengono applicati e dimostrati da ricercatori attraverso esperimenti in laboratorio.

Next Generation Science Standards

High School

Life Science

HS-LS1-2

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.L.14

SC.912.L.14.45

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

Structure and Function

HS-LS1-2.

structural-organization-of-the-human-body-an-overview

Structural Organization of the Human Body: An Overview

It is convenient to consider the body&#39;s structures in terms of fundamental levels of organization that increase in complexity: subatomic particles, ...

Tissues

Tissues are a group of cells that share a common embryonic origin. Microscopic observation reveals that the cells in a tissue share morphological features ...

Cells with similar structure and function are grouped into tissues. A group of tissues with a specialized function is called an organ. There are four main ...

Mitochondria

The Endoplasmic Reticulum

Introduction to Cytoskeleton

What are Membranes?

1. Obtain, evaluate, and communicate information to explain how differences in cellular structure (mitochondria, cytoskeletal structure, endoplasmic reticulum, cell membrane) lead to differences in the function and organization of the four tissue types (epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous).

9-12.HA.1.1

Introduction to the Integumentary System

The integumentary system is the organ system that comprises the skin and its associated structures. It is the largest system in the human body and plays a ...

Cells of the Epidermis

The epidermis is made of four or five layers of epithelial cells, depending on its location in the body. From deep to superficial, these layers are the ...

Papillary Dermis

Dermis
The dermis might be considered the &#34;core&#34; of the integumentary system, as distinct from the epidermis and hypodermis. It contains blood and ...

Layers of the Epidermis

The epidermis, the outermost layer of the skin, is composed of several distinct layers. From deep to superficial, the layers of the epidermis are as ...

accessory-structures-of-the-skin-sweat-glands

Accessory Structures of the Skin: Sweat Glands

Sweat glands or sudoriferous glands are one of the important accessory structures of the skin. They are small, coiled tubular structures located in the ...

accessory-structures-of-the-skin-hair-and-hair-follicles

Accessory Structures of the Skin: Hair and Hair Follicles

Hair and hair follicles are integral components of the integumentary system. Hair is a filamentous structure composed mainly of a protein called keratin. ...

Accessory Structures of the Skin: Nails

Nails are one of the important accessory structures of the skin. They are hard, protective structures that cover the dorsal surface of the distal ...

2. Obtain, evaluate, and communicate information to describe how the structures of the integumentary system and its accessory organs contribute to its function. Examples: how the layers of the skin contribute to homeostasis, the role of glands in thermoregulation and in hydration of skin and mucous membranes, the protective functions of hair and nails

9-12.HA.1.2

Thermoregulation

The body regulates core temperature through negative feedback mechanisms.
When the core temperature drops, thermoreceptors send signals to the ...

Defense Mechanism Against Infection

Natural flora, body system defenses, and inflammation are natural barriers of the body against infectious agents regardless of previous exposure. Normal ...

Surface Membrane Barriers

Surface barriers such as the skin and mucous membranes are the body&#39;s initial defense against pathogens, offering physical and chemical protection.
...

a. Construct an explanation of the relationships between the integumentary system and other organ systems, including the body's mechanisms for maintaining homeostasis. Examples: Explain how changes in vessel diameter and evaporation of water over the skin contribute to thermoregulation (cardiovascular). Explain how sweat is used to excrete nitrogenous waste from the blood (cardiovascular). Explain how the skin and mucous membranes create a barrier against infection (immune system).

9-12.HA.1.2.a

Introduction to the Skeletal System

The skeletal system is the central framework of the body, consisting of different connective tissues: bones, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments.
Components ...

Classification of Bones

The bones of the human skeletal system are of varied shapes, sizes, and functions. They can be classified based on their shape and function into four ...

Overview of the Axial Skeleton

The skeleton is subdivided into two major divisions&#8212;the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton forms the vertical, central ...

Introduction to Joints

The adult human body usually has 206 bones, and except for the hyoid bone in the neck, each bone is connected to at least one other bone. Joints are the ...

Joints

Joints, also called articulations or articular surfaces, are points at which ligaments or other tissues connect adjacent bones. Joints permit movement and ...

3. Develop and use a model to illustrate how the structures of the skeletal system contribute to its function. Examples: Create a diagram or 3D model to illustrate bone shape, joint types, and bones in the appendicular and axial skeletons. Use models to illustrate the role of the skeletal system in movements around joints, support of a body structure, and protection of soft tissues.

9-12.HA.1.3

bone-formation-by-endochondral-ossification

Bone Formation by Endochondral Ossification

Bone formation, or ossification, begins around the sixth to seventh week of embryonic development. Most bones develop from a cartilaginous template ...

bone-formation-by-intramembranous-ossification

Bone Formation by Intramembranous Ossification

Intramembranous ossification is one of the two processes involved in the development of bones within an embryo. The flat bones of the face, most of the ...

Bone Remodeling and Repair

a. Obtain, evaluate, and communicate information describing the growth and development of the skeletal system.

9-12.HA.1.3.a

The Functions of the Skeletal System

The most apparent functions of the skeletal system are support, protection, and movement. However, bone tissue also performs several other critical ...

Skeleton and Calcium Homeostasis

Calcium is not only the most abundant mineral in bone but also the most abundant mineral in the human body. Calcium ions are needed for bone ...

The Bone Matrix

Bone contains a relatively small number of cells entrenched in a matrix of collagen fibers that provide an adherent surface for inorganic salt ...

Overview of Hematopoiesis

Hematopoiesis, or hemopoiesis, is the production of the formed elements in blood from common progenitors, called hematopoietic stem cells, or HSCs.
During ...

b. Construct an explanation of the relationships between the skeletal system and other organ systems, including the body's mechanisms for maintaining homeostasis. Examples: Explain the role of spongy bone in hematopoiesis (cardiovascular system) and leukopoiesis (immune system). Explain how the storage of minerals in bone contributes to homeostasis.

9-12.HA.1.3.b

The Muscular System

The muscular system includes the skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles that coordinate with each other to carry out functions like movement, digestion, ...

Naming Skeletal Muscles

Skeletal muscle names are based on various factors, such as location, physical traits, and functions.
Often, muscle names indicate their location. For ...

Muscle Coordination and Action

The skeletal muscles can coordinate, oppose, or assist each other to facilitate voluntary body movements.
Depending on their function, a muscle or group ...

Fascicle Arrangement in Skeletal Muscles

Fascicles are bundles of muscle fibers in a skeletal muscle. Muscle fascicle arrangement is directly associated with the power and range of motion of ...

4. Develop and build a three-dimensional model to illustrate the structures of the muscular system, including muscle locations, origins, and insertions, and explain their roles in movement and support. Example: Design and build a model of a lever to illustrate the relationship between bones and muscles and explain their roles in body movement and support.

9-12.HA.1.4

Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles

Each skeletal muscle is composed of multiple bundles of elongated multinucleated muscle cells or muscle fibers.
These cells are enclosed by a plasma ...

The Sarcomere

A sarcomere is mainly made up of two types of filaments&#8212; thin filaments containing actin, troponin, and tropomyosin and thick filaments containing ...

excitation-contraction-coupling-in-skeletal-muscles

Excitation-Contraction Coupling in Skeletal Muscles

Excitation-contraction coupling is a series of events that occur between generating an action potential and initiating a muscle contraction. It occurs at ...

Relaxation of Skeletal Muscles

The period of muscle contraction primarily influences the duration of stimulation at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), the presence of free calcium ions ...

a. Model the cellular physiology of skeletal muscle, including how the cell functions in muscle contraction and relaxation. Example: Use straws and paper to create a model of a sarcomere to illustrate how the fibers move during contraction and relaxation.

9-12.HA.1.4.a

Muscle Recovery and Fatigue

Any intense physical activity escalates the ATP demand in the muscles.
As contractions become vigorous, the compressed blood vessels impair the ...

Muscle Stimulation Frequency

Depending on the demand, motor neurons control the strength of a muscle&#39;s contraction by altering the frequency of action potentials delivered to the ...

b. Obtain, evaluate, and communicate information to explain muscle fatigue and tone in terms of muscle cell physiology.

9-12.HA.1.4.b

Organization of the Nervous System

The nervous system is the primary control and communication center of the body.
The nervous system can be divided into two major categories&#8212;the ...

functional-divisions-of-the-nervous-system

Functional Divisions of the Nervous System

The nervous system senses, integrates, and responds to various stimuli. Based on bodily control, the central nervous system cannot be divided ...

Anatomy of the Brain: Major Regions

The human brain is a complex organ consisting of four main parts &#8212; the cerebrum, the cerebellum, the diencephalon, and the brainstem.
The cerebrum ...

peripheral-nervous-system-ganglia-and-nerves

Peripheral Nervous System: Ganglia and Nerves

The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves, ganglia, and sensory receptors.
Each nerve has an outermost connective tissue layer called the ...

5. Obtain, evaluate, and communicate information explaining the relationship between the structures and functions of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.

9-12.HA.1.5

Action Potential

Neurons communicate by firing action potentials&#8212;the electrochemical signal that is propagated along the axon. The signal results in the release of ...

Propagation of Action Potentials

The Propagation of an action potential is the process by which a nerve impulse is transmitted along the axon. It is a self-propagating process; once ...

Action Potential: Phases of Stimulation

The action potential is a complex electrical event that occurs in excitable cells, such as neurons and muscle cells. It consists of several distinct ...

Voltage-gated Ion Channels

a. Use a model to illustrate the role of action potentials in neural transmission. Clarification: Discussions of sodium-potassium pumps and ion channels are not required.

9-12.HA.1.5.a

Somatic Spinal Reflexes

Somatic spinal reflexes are rapid, involuntary muscular responses to external stimuli that involve the somatic musculature and the spinal cord.
One of the ...

Reflex Activity

A reflex is a quick and automatic response to a stimulus, like pulling your hand away from heat or lifting your foot off a sharp object.&#160;&#160;
A ...

Introduction to Special Senses

Humans have five special senses&#8212;vision, smell, taste, hearing, and equilibrium. All these senses have anatomically distinct receptors to detect ...

b. Construct an explanation of the role of reflex arcs, the central nervous system, and special senses in the response to stimuli to maintain homeostasis and guide behavior. Example: smelling a strong odor initiating a sneeze response using a reflex arc; pupil diameter changing in relation to the amount of light entering the eye Clarification: Discussion of the anatomy and physiology of the sensory organs is not required.

9-12.HA.1.5.b

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters play a crucial role in the communication between neurons in the autonomic nervous system. Neurons in the autonomic nervous system can be ...

Chemical Synapses

Chemical synapses are specialized sites between two neurons or between a neuron and a non-neuronal cell like a muscle, glandular or sensory cell.
Because ...

The Synapse

Neurons communicate with one another by passing on their electrical signals to other neurons. A synapse is the location where two neurons meet to exchange ...

c. Construct an explanation of the role of neurotransmitters in the functions and behavior of the nervous system. Clarification: Discussion of classes of neurotransmitters is not required.

9-12.HA.1.5.c

Digestive Glands and Enzymes

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