Name: using test crosses to identify genotypes
Uploaded: 2025-10-23T11:49:30.000Z
Duration: 1 min 39 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

Life Science

LS.10

LS.10.c

Test Cross

- [Narratore] Il test cross è una tecnica

che può essere usata per
determinare il genotipo

di un organismo, che
esprime un tratto dominante,

come il colore del fiore
viola nelle piante di pisello.

Poichè la versione dominante,
o allele di un gene,

sarà sempre espresso a
scapito dell'allele recessivo,

organismi con il genotipo
omozigote-dominante,

due alleli dominanti, appariranno uguali

agli organismi con il
genotipo eterozigote,

un allele dominante.

Una pianta di piselli a fiore
viola di genotipo sconosciuto,

può essere incrociata con
una pianta di piselli che ha

il fenotipo recessivo, fiori bianchi.

E quella è noto avere

il genotipo omozigote-recessivo,
p piccolo, p piccolo.

In un caso, se tutti i figli

dal test cross,

mostrano il fenotipo dominante,
il genitore sconosciuto

deve essere omozigote-dominante
per i fiori viola.

Tutti i figli sono eterozigoti,

ricevono un allele recessivo
dal genitore recessivo,

e un allele dominante dell'altro genitore.

Tuttavia, se la discendenza
include numeri uguali

di organismi, che mostrano
il fenotipo dominante,

e organismi che mostrano
il fenotipo recessivo,

il genitore sconosciuto
deve essere eterozigote.

Tutti i figli ricevono, di
nuovo, il loro allele recessivo

dal genitore recessivo.

La metà della prole ha
ricevuto un allele dominante

dal genitore eterozigote,

e mostra il fenotipo dominante,

mentre l'altra metà ha
ricevuto una seconda copia

dell'allele recessivo
dal genitore eterozigote,

e mostra il fenotipo recessivo.

Miko, Ilona. 2008. "Incroci di prova". Educazione alla natura 1 (1): 136. [<a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/test-crosses-585">Fonte</a>]

Reid, James B. e John J. Ross. 2011. "I geni di Mendel: verso una caratterizzazione molecolare completa" Genetica 189 (1): 3–10. [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.111.132118">Fonte</a>]

reincrocio

Gli alleli sono forme diverse dello stesso gene. Gli esseri umani e altri organismi diploidi ereditano due alleli di ogni gene, uno da ogni genitore.

Un allele è recessivo se i suoi effetti sono mascherati da un altro allele nella stessa posizione genica. Ad esempio, le piante di pisone possono avere fiori viola o bianchi. In questo caso, i fiori bianchi sono recessivi poiché una singola copia dell'allele per i fiori viola si tradurrà in una pianta con fiori viola, anche se hanno anche l'allele per i fiori bianchi.

Se un organismo mostra un tratto recessivo noto, determinare il genotipo dell'organismo, la sua coppia di alleli ereditati, è semplice. Solo un genotipo, pp (due alleli recessivi), produce fiori bianchi.

Per un organismo con un tratto dominante, come una pianta di piselli con fiori viola, determinare il genotipo non è così semplice. Due genotipi, PP e Pp, producono fiori viola.

Gli scienziati usano incroci di prova per determinare i genotipi degli organismi che presentano semplici tratti dominanti. Un incrocio di prova coinvolge l'allevamento, o attraversamento, dell'organismo in questione con uno che mostra la controparte recessiva del suo tratto dominante.

In un incrocio di prova per una pianta di pisoni con fiori viola, la pianta viene allevata con una pianta di pisoni che ha fiori bianchi (genotipo pp). Il colore del fiore della prole risultante rivela se il genitore con fiori viola è omozigote (PP) o etetozigote (Pp).

Se la pianta è omozigote, tutta la prole erediterà uno dei suoi p alleli dominanti e uno degli alleli p recessivi dell'altro genitore. Poiché gli alleli dominanti mascherare alleli recessivi, tutti i figli avranno fiori viola, il tratto dominante.

Se la pianta è eterozigote, tuttavia, circa il 50% della prole erediterà il suo allele recessivo p, insieme a un altro allele recessivo dall'altro genitore. Pertanto, circa la metà della prole da questo incrocio avrà fiori bianchi. In questo modo, le croci di prova possono rivelare genotipi parentali sconosciuti.

Reincrocio

Gli alleli sono forme diverse dello stesso gene. Gli esseri umani e gli altri organismi diploidi ereditano due alleli di ogni gene, uno da ciascun genitore.

Un allele è ...

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KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

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using test crosses to identify genotypes

Test crosses are used to identify the genotype of an organism with a dominant trait. A genotype is the pair of alleles inherited for a gene, and alleles are different forms of the same gene. In diploid organisms, including humans, each gene usually has two alleles, one from each parent.

An allele is recessive when its effect is hidden by another allele at the same gene location. Pea plants provide a clear example with flower color. White flowers are recessive, because one copy of the purple allele is enough to make a plant purple, even if it also carries the white allele.

When a trait is recessive, the genotype is easy to determine. For white pea flowers, only one genotype produces the trait: pp, with two recessive alleles. The problem is different for dominant traits, such as purple flowers. Two genotypes, PP and Pp, can both produce purple flowers.

Scientists use a test cross to solve that problem. In this method, the organism with the dominant trait is bred with an organism that shows the recessive version of the same trait. For a purple-flowered pea plant, the cross is made with a white-flowered pea plant with the pp genotype. The offspring then show whether the purple parent is homozygous, meaning PP, or heterozygous, meaning Pp.

The offspring pattern gives the answer. If the purple plant is homozygous, every offspring inherits one dominant P allele and one recessive p allele, so they all have purple flowers. If the purple plant is heterozygous, about half of the offspring inherit the recessive p allele from that parent and become white. In this way, test crosses reveal unknown parental genotypes.

Using Test Crosses to Identify Genotypes

genetic lingo

Genotype, Phenotype, and Inheritance

Genotype, phenotype, and inheritance help explain how traits and disease risk are passed from parents to offspring. In diploid organisms, including humans, most other animals, and many plants, somatic cells carry a duplicate set of chromosomes. These chromosome pairs are homologous, with similar length, centromere position, and gene locations. Diploid organisms inherit two versions of each gene, one from each parent. These versions are called alleles, and they sit at the same relative locus,...

punnett squares

Punnett Squares for Predicting Traits

Punnett squares help predict which traits offspring may inherit from two parents. They show possible genotypes, which are pairs of alleles, and can also show the chance of a phenotype, or visible trait, when the inheritance pattern is known. These grids work best for traits controlled by a single gene locus and passed on independently during meiosis. Punnett squares were developed in the early 1900s by Reginald Punnett. His work came after Gregor Mendel’s pea plant experiments revealed the...

monohybrid crosses

Mendel’s Pea Plant Inheritance Ratios

Gregor Mendel used pea plants to study how traits are passed from parents to offspring. His breeding experiments in the 1850s and 1860s showed that inheritance follows clear patterns. He crossed true-breeding plants that differed in one trait and found that dominant traits can hide recessive traits. Mendel focused on seven pea plant traits, and each trait had two forms controlled by a single gene locus. He noticed that true-breeding plants always produced offspring with the same phenotype, or...

dihybrid crosses

Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment

Mendel’s law of independent assortment explains how two traits can be inherited separately. Gregor Mendel tested this idea with pea plants that differed in two characteristics, such as pea color and pea shape. He used true-breeding parents that were homozygous for both traits but showed different phenotypes. In one example, Mendel crossed round, yellow peas with wrinkled, green peas. The parental generation had RRYY and rryy genotypes. Their first-generation offspring were all dihybrids,...

law of segregation

Mendel’s Pea Cross Ratios

Mendel’s pea plant crosses show how traits can disappear in one generation and return in the next. When he crossed plants, one parental trait sometimes seemed to vanish in the F1 generation and reappear in the F2 generation. Mendel used this pattern to explain why some traits are dominant and others are recessive. He proposed that traits are controlled by alleles, which are different versions of a gene. An organism inherits two copies of each gene, one from each parent. In his model, a...

law of independent assortment

Mendel’s Dihybrid Cross and Trait Ratios

Mendel’s dihybrid cross shows how two traits are inherited at the same time. A dihybrid cross is a cross in which both parents are homozygous for two distinct traits, and the F1 generation is heterozygous for both traits. Mendel used pea plants with round yellow peas and wrinkled green peas as an example. One parent had genotype YYRR, and the other had genotype yyrr. In the F1 generation, every plant showed the dominant traits, so the plants were YyRr and had yellow, round peas. The F2...

probability laws

Inheritance Risk with Sum and Product Rules

Inheritance risk can be calculated with the sum rule and the product rule. The sum rule applies to mutually exclusive events, or events that cannot happen at the same time. The product rule applies to independent events, or events that do not affect one another. These rules describe theoretical probability, which is the chance of an event before it happens. Empirical probability is different because it is based on events that have already occurred. These probability rules are useful in...

test cross

Test crosses are used to identify the genotype of an organism with a dominant trait. A genotype is the pair of alleles inherited for a gene, and alleles are different forms of the same gene. In diploid organisms, including humans, each gene usually has two alleles, one from each parent. An allele is recessive when its effect is hidden by another allele at the same gene location. Pea plants provide a clear example with flower color. White flowers are recessive, because one copy of the purple...

pedigree analysis

Reading Family Traits in Pedigrees

Pedigrees are family trees used to track how a trait passes through generations. They help scientists and students see whether a trait is dominant or recessive, whether it is autosomal or sex-linked, what genotypes family members may have, and what phenotypes may appear in future generations. For families with a history of inherited disease, this information can be important for family planning. In plants and animals, inheritance is often studied with crosses. Monohybrid crosses can show...

polygenic traits

Polygenic Traits in Human Height

Polygenic traits are traits controlled by more than one gene. Human height is a clear example of this kind of inheritance. Because many genes work together, the final trait can vary a lot from person to person. Researchers have found hundreds of loci, or gene locations, that influence height. There are likely many more that have not yet been identified. Many of these genes affect cartilage in the growth plates of the long bones in the arms and legs, either directly or indirectly. Height is...

multiple allele traits

Blood Type and Allele Interactions

Multiple alleles can shape traits through blood type, sickle cell anemia, incomplete dominance, and codominance. Multiple allelism means a gene has three or more allelic forms. Diploid organisms, including humans, usually carry only two alleles for each gene, but many human genes exist in multiple forms in the population. Human blood type is a clear example of multiple allelism. The blood type gene has three alleles: I A , I B , and i. These alleles help determine which blood type a person has...

epistasis

Gene Masking in Rabbit Fur Color

Epistasis describes how one gene can mask or change the effect of another gene. In high school genetics, this helps explain why many traits do not follow a simple single-gene pattern. Instead, alleles at different locations can work together to shape the final phenotype. Mendel studied seven unrelated pea traits, but most traits involve multiple gene interactions. Epistasis often happens when one gene interferes with the expression of another gene. It can also occur when genes are part of the...

nature and nurture

Genes and Environment Shape Height

Genes and environment both shape human height and other traits. Genes are the inherited instructions we get from our parents. Environment includes factors such as diet, stress, and social conditions. Many phenotypes, or observable traits, reflect both influences. Some also show up later in life, including cancer and other diseases. Height is a clear example of this interaction. Scientists estimate that 70-90% of height variation comes from genetic differences among people. The remaining 10-30%...

pleiotropy

SOX10 and Multiple Traits in Pleiotropy

Pleiotropy is when one gene affects more than one trait. The SOX10 gene is a clear example because it can influence pigmentation, hearing, and intestinal movement. These traits may seem unrelated, but they can all be linked to the same gene change. In humans, a deleted region in SOX10 can cause Waardenburg Syndrome Type 4, or WS4. WS4 is an autosomal recessive disorder, which means a person usually inherits two altered copies of the gene. Common signs include a white forelock,...

sex-linked disorders

X- and Y-Linked Disorder Patterns

X- and Y-linked disorders come from mutations in genes on the sex chromosomes. These genes, like those on autosomes, are needed for normal body function. When a mutation causes a biological problem, the condition is called sex-linked. Y-linked disorders come from changes in the Y chromosome. They affect only males, because only males carry a Y chromosome. Mutations in this small chromosome can affect male sexual function and secondary sex characteristics. One example is Y-chromosome...

x-linked traits

X-Linked Inheritance in Families

X-linked inheritance explains how traits on the X chromosome are passed through families. In most mammalian species, females have two X sex chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y. A mutation on one X chromosome may be masked in females by a normal allele on the other X. In males, that same mutation is more likely to show because there is no second normal X to balance it. Traits caused by changes on the X chromosome are called X-linked traits. Color blindness is a well-studied example.

x-inactivation

Barr Bodies and X-Chromosome Balance

Barr bodies and X-chromosome balance help explain how female mammalian cells control gene activity from the X chromosome. The human X chromosome carries far more genes than the Y chromosome. Because males usually have one X chromosome and females have two, females would make twice as many of some proteins without a control system. To prevent that imbalance, female mammalian cells inactivate nearly all the genes on one X chromosome during early embryonic development. The inactive X condenses...

non-nuclear inheritance

Maternal DNA in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

Maternal DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts explains how some genes are inherited outside the nucleus. Most DNA is in the nucleus, but mitochondria and chloroplasts in the cell cytoplasm also carry their own DNA and can copy it independently of nuclear DNA. Mitochondria are found in both plant and animal cells. They are called the powerhouses of eukaryotic cells because they break down glucose to make energy for cellular activity. Mitochondrial DNA has about 37 genes, and many help with...

chromosomal theory of inheritance

How Genes Map to Chromosomes

Genes map to chromosomes, and this idea explains how Mendel’s inheritance patterns work. Gregor Mendel published his pea plant breeding results in 1866. He showed that physical traits follow predictable patterns. At the time, scientists did not yet know that genes existed. Mendel used the word "factors" for the hereditary units he studied. The details behind Mendel’s laws of segregation and independent assortment were still unknown for many years. In the late 1800s, better microscopes and...

key terms and concepts

Learn how a test cross uses a recessive partner to reveal whether a dominant trait is homozygous or heterozygous in pea plants.

Using Test Crosses to Identify Genotypes | JoVE K12

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heredity-inheritance-and-variation-of-traits

Heredity: Inheritance and Variation of Traits

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Using Test Crosses to Identify Genotypes

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