Name: carbohydrates as energy and storage molecules
Uploaded: 2020-09-24T15:06:53.000Z
Duration: 3 min 25 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Next Generation Science Standards

High School

Life Science

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

HS-LS1-6

Chemistry of Carbohydrates

I carboidrati sono composti cortituiti da carbonio, idrogeno e ossigeno. Queste molecole prendono il nome dalla formula empirica di molti monosaccaridi che hanno due atomi di idrogeno e un atomo di ossigeno per ogni carbonio. I carboidrati semplici sono monomeri chiamati monosaccaridi, e dimeri, detti disaccaridi.

I carboidrati complessi sono polimeri detti polisaccaridi. Un monosaccaride può essere classificato come aldoso o chetoso dal suo gruppo funzionale. Quelli che hanno un gruppo aldeidico sono detti aldosi, e quelli che hanno un gruppo chetonico sono detti chetosi.

I monosaccaridi contengono solitamente da tre a sette atomi di carbonio nelle loro catene. Ciascuno degli atomi di carbonio può essere numerato a partire dal numero uno dall'estremità più vicina al carbonio carbonilico. Gli zuccheri possono formare strutture ad anello non planari e in natura esistono principalmente in questa forma ciclica.

Le strutture ad anello si formano quando il gruppo carbonile reagisce con un gruppo idrossile all'estremità opposta della molecola, attraverso una reazione di condensazione. Il carbonio attaccato all'aldeide reattiva, o chetone, è anche definito carbonio anomerico. Queste strutture ad anello carbonio-ossigeno, possono esistere come due anomeri:alfa e beta.

Gli anomeri sono isomeri strutturali che differiscono nella configurazione del carbonio carbonile. Nella forma alfa, il gruppo idrossile sul carbonio anomerico e il gruppo CH2OH sull'ultimo carbonio all'interno dell'anello si trovano sui lati opposti dell'anello, e nella forma beta si trovano sullo stesso lato. Una convenzione di denominazione simile è usata per i legami che collegano i monosaccaridi ad altre molecole.

I legami formati sotto la struttura ad anello sono noti come collegamenti alfa, mentre quelli sopra l'anello sono noti come collegamenti beta. I numeri nel nome dei legami glicosidici indicano i numeri di carbonio dei monosaccaridi coinvolti nei legami. Quando due monosaccaridi si legano insieme attraverso legami glicosidici, formano disaccaridi.

I legami glicosidici sono legami covalenti che si formano quando il gruppo idrossile di un monosaccaride reagisce con il carbonio anomerico di un altro monosaccaride, con l'eliminazione di una molecola d'acqua. I polisaccaridi o carboidrati complessi sono una catena di monosaccaridi tenuti insieme da legami covalenti. La variazione dei legami glicosidici presenti in queste molecole può portare alla formazione di diversi tipi di polisaccaridi dallo stesso monosaccaride.

Le molecole di glucosio legate tramite legami β-1, 4-glicosidici formano la cellulosa, un polisaccaride insolubile in acqua. Le molecole di glucosio legate tramite legami α-1, 4-glicosidici formano l'amilosio, un polimero idrosolubile e un componente dell'amido. L'amido e la cellulosa sono polisaccaridi presenti nelle piante.

Il glicogeno è una molecola insolubile in acqua, composta da glucosio legata tramite legami α-1, 4-glicosidici e legami α-1, 6-glicosidici con ramificazione intermittente. Il glicogeno funge da polisaccaride di stoccaggio negli animali.

chimica dei carboidrati

I carboidrati sono una parte essenziale della dieta dell’uomo e degli animali. Cereali, frutta e verdura sono fonti naturali di carboidrati che forniscono energia al corpo, in particolare attraverso il glucosio, uno zucchero semplice che è un componente dell'amido e un ingrediente di molti alimenti di base. La formula stechiometrica (CH_2O)_n, dove n è il numero di atomi di carbonio nella molecola, rappresenta i carboidrati. In altre parole, il rapporto tra carbonio, idrogeno e ossigeno è 1:2:1 nelle molecole di carboidrati. Questa formula spiega anche l'origine del termine “carboidrato”: i componenti sono carbonio (“carbo”) e acqua (“idrato”). I carboidrati possono essere classificati in semplici e complessi. Monosaccaridi e disaccaridi sono carboidrati semplici. I polisaccaridi sono carboidrati complessi.

Monosaccaridi

I monosaccaridi sono zuccheri semplici, il più comune dei quali è il glucosio. Nei monosaccaridi, il numero di atomi di carbonio varia solitamente da tre a sette. Se lo zucchero ha un gruppo aldeidico (il gruppo funzionale con la struttura R-CHO), è un aldoso, e se ha un gruppo chetonico (il gruppo funzionale con la struttura RC(=O)R'), è un chetoso. A seconda del numero di atomi di carbonio nello zucchero, possono essere triosi (tre atomi di carbonio), pentosi (cinque atomi di carbonio) e/o esosi (sei atomi di carbonio).

Galattosio e fruttosio sono altri monosaccaridi comuni. Glucosio, galattosio e fruttosio sono monosaccaridi isomerici (esosi), nel senso che hanno la stessa formula chimica ma le loro strutture sono leggermente diverse. Il glucosio e il galattosio sono aldosi, mentre il fruttosio è un chetosio.

I monosaccaridi possono esistere come una catena lineare o come molecole a forma di anello. Nelle soluzioni acquose, solitamente hanno forma di anelli. Il glucosio in forma di anello può avere due diverse disposizioni dei gruppi idrossilici (OH) attorno al carbonio anomerico (carbonio 1 che diventa asimmetrico nel processo di formazione dell'anello). Se nello zucchero il gruppo idrossile è al di sotto del numero di carbonio 1, è nella posizione alfa (α) e se è sopra il piano, è nella posizione beta (β).

Disaccaridi

I disaccaridi si formano quando due monosaccaridi subiscono una reazione di disidratazione (o una reazione di condensazione o sintesi di disidratazione). Durante questo processo, il gruppo idrossile di un monosaccaride si combina con l'idrogeno di un altro monosaccaride, rilasciando una molecola d'acqua e formando un legame covalente. Questo è chiamato legame glicosidico. I legami glicosidici possono essere di tipo alfa o beta. Un legame alfa si forma quando il gruppo OH sul carbonio-1 del primo glucosio è sotto il piano dell'anello, mentre si forma un legame beta quando il gruppo OH sul carbonio-1 è sopra il piano dell'anello. Il disaccaride più comune è il saccarosio, o zucchero da tavola, composto da monomeri di glucosio e fruttosio.

Polisaccaridi

Una lunga catena di monosaccaridi legati da legami glicosidici è un polisaccaride. La catena può essere ramificata oppure no e può contenere diversi tipi di monosaccaridi. Il peso molecolare può essere di 100.000 dalton o più a seconda del numero di monomeri uniti. Amido, glicogeno, cellulosa e chitina sono esempi di polisaccaridi.

Le piante immagazzinano l'amido sotto forma di zuccheri. Nelle piante, questi zuccheri sono costituiti da una miscela di amilosio e amilopectina (entrambi polimeri del glucosio). L'amido comprende monomeri di glucosio uniti da legami glicosidici α 1-4 o α 1-6. I numeri 1-4 e 1-6 si riferiscono al numero di carbonio dei due residui che si sono uniti per formare il legame.

Il glicogeno è la forma di conservazione del glucosio negli esseri umani e in altri vertebrati ed è composto da monomeri di glucosio. Il glicogeno è l'equivalente animale dell'amido ed è una molecola altamente ramificata solitamente immagazzinata nelle cellule del fegato e dei muscoli. Ogni volta che i livelli di glucosio nel sangue diminuiscono, il glicogeno si scompone per rilasciare glucosio.

La cellulosa è il biopolimero naturale più abbondante. La cellulosa comprende principalmente la parete cellulare di una pianta. Ciò fornisce il supporto strutturale della cellula. Il legno e la carta sono per la maggior parte di natura cellulosica. I monomeri di glucosio comprendono la cellulosa che si collega con legami glicosidici β 1-4

Questo testo è adattato da <a href="https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/3-2-carbohydrates">Openstax, Biology 2e, Chapter 3.4: Carbohydrates.</a>

Chimica dei carboidrati

I carboidrati sono una parte essenziale della dieta nell'uomo e negli animali. Cereali, frutta e verdura sono fonti naturali di carboidrati che forniscono ...

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KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

TERMINI E CONCETTI CHIAVE

carbohydrates as energy and storage molecules

Carbohydrates are important energy sources in human and animal diets. Grains, fruits, and vegetables are natural sources of carbohydrates. They help provide energy to the body, especially through glucose, a simple sugar found in starch and many staple foods.

Carbohydrates are identified by the stoichiometric formula (CH2O)n, where n is the number of carbons in the molecule. This means the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is usually 1:2:1. The name carbohydrate comes from this pattern, with carbon meaning &quot;carbo&quot; and water meaning &quot;hydrate.&quot;

Carbohydrates are grouped into simple and complex forms. Monosaccharides and disaccharides are simple carbohydrates. Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates.

Monosaccharides are simple sugars, and glucose is the most common example. Their carbon chains usually have three to seven carbons. If a sugar has an aldehyde group, it is called an aldose. If it has a ketone group, it is called a ketose. Monosaccharides can also be named by carbon number, such as trioses, pentoses, and hexoses.

Galactose and fructose are other common monosaccharides. Glucose, galactose, and fructose are isomeric monosaccharides, which means they have the same chemical formula but different structures. Glucose and galactose are aldoses, while fructose is a ketose. Monosaccharides can appear as linear chains or ring-shaped molecules, and in water they are usually found in ring form. In glucose, the hydroxyl group on the anomeric carbon can be in the alpha position or the beta position.

Disaccharides form when two monosaccharides join through a dehydration reaction, also called condensation or dehydration synthesis. In this reaction, one sugar loses a hydroxyl group and the other loses a hydrogen, and a water molecule is released. The sugars then form a covalent glycosidic bond. Glycosidic bonds can be alpha or beta type. Sucrose, or table sugar, is the most common disaccharide and is made of glucose and fructose.

Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. These chains may be branched or unbranched, and they may include different kinds of monosaccharides. Their molecular weight may reach 100,000 daltons or more. Starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin are examples of polysaccharides.

Plants store starch as a form of sugar. Starch is made of amylose and amylopectin, which are both glucose polymers. Its glucose units are joined by alpha 1-4 or alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds. Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates. It is the animal equivalent of starch and is highly branched. Glycogen is usually stored in liver and muscle cells, and it breaks down when blood glucose levels drop.

Cellulose is the most abundant natural biopolymer and is a major part of plant cell walls. It gives cells structural support. Wood and paper are mostly cellulosic. Cellulose is made of glucose monomers linked by beta 1-4 glycosidic bonds.

Carbohydrates as Energy and Storage Molecules

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Carbohydrates as Energy and Storage Molecules

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