Name: cell chemistry: water and macromolecules
Uploaded: 2020-09-24T15:06:53.000Z
Duration: 2 min 58 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

9-12

Earth and Space Science

Earth's Systems

3.3.9-12.K

Chemistry of the Cell

Cells are the basic building blocks of living organisms. They are composed mostly of water, organic molecules, and inorganic ions.
Water makes up around 70% of the cell. This aqueous environment in the cytoplasm is essential for the cell&#8217;s structure and for many of the reactions that occur within it.
Water is a highly polar molecule, so it will interact with other polar molecules and ions in the cell but not with the nonpolar ones.
The hydrophilic environment of the cytoplasm promotes the formation of proteins&#8217; three-dimensional structures, with nonpolar amino acids at the core and polar ones at the surface.
In the case of membrane formation, polar head groups of phospholipids interact with water. In contrast, the nonpolar tails interact with each other creating a hydrophobic barrier to the outside of the cell.
The pH of biological fluids in the cell and its compartments is precisely buffered. The pH of the cytoplasm is around 7.2 and is regulated by molecules such as phosphate ions.
In contrast, the pH in the lysosomes, specialized cellular compartments, is around 5. This is because lysosomes contain enzymes that function optimally in acidic environments.
Organic molecules in the cell include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleotides. All of these various macromolecules have a variety of roles.
Carbohydrates are a primary source of energy to power various metabolic processes; however, the cell can break down proteins and lipids for fuel as well.
Proteins can be enzymes that catalyze reactions, or they can contribute to cell structure.
Lipids are a significant component of cell membranes. Additionally, these macromolecules can covalently bond to each other to form conjugates such as glycoproteins and glycolipids, often found in cell membranes.
Nucleotides serve as the genetic material and also associate with proteins to form nucleoproteins that tightly package the DNA in a cell. The nucleotide ATP is also the source of energy for many cellular processes.
Inorganic ions critical to cell function include sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, phosphate, and chloride. Although these ions constitute less than 1% of the cell mass, they have diverse roles within the cell.
For example, ions such as calcium are used to relay biological signals throughout a cell, while magnesium is essential for many enzymes&#8217; catalytic activity.

chemistry of the cell

The cell is chemically composed of water, organic molecules and inorganic ions.
Water
The polarity of the water molecule and its resulting hydrogen bonding makes water a unique substance with special properties that are intimately tied to the processes of life. Life originally evolved in an aqueous environment, and most of an organism&#8217;s cellular chemistry and metabolism occur inside the aqueous contents of the cell&#8217;s cytoplasm. Special properties of water are its high heat capacity and heat of vaporization, its ability to dissolve polar molecules, its cohesive and adhesive properties, and its dissociation into ions that leads to the basis of pH. Understanding these characteristics of water helps to elucidate its importance in maintaining life.
One of water&#8217;s important properties is that it is a polar molecule: the hydrogen and oxygen within water molecules (H2O) form polar covalent bonds. While there is no net charge to a water molecule, water&#39;s polarity creates a slightly positive charge on hydrogen and a slightly negative charge on oxygen, contributing to water&#8217;s properties of attraction. Water generates charges because oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, making it more likely that a shared electron would be near the oxygen nucleus than the hydrogen nucleus, thus generating the partial negative charge near the oxygen.
As a result of water&#8217;s polarity, each water molecule attracts other water molecules because of the opposite charges between water molecules, forming hydrogen bonds. Water also attracts or is attracted to other polar molecules and ions. A polar substance that interacts readily with or dissolves in water is hydrophilic. In contrast, nonpolar molecules such as oils and fats do not interact well with water. These nonpolar compounds are hydrophobic.
Organic molecules 
Proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids are the four major classes of biological macromolecules&#8212;large molecules necessary for life that are built from smaller organic molecules. Macromolecules are composed of single units scientists call monomers that are joined by covalent bonds to form larger polymers. The polymer is more than the sum of its parts: it acquires new characteristics and leads to an osmotic pressure that is much lower than that formed by its ingredients. This is an important advantage in maintaining cellular osmotic conditions. A monomer joins with another monomer with water molecule release, leading to a covalent bond forming. Scientists call these dehydration or condensation reactions. When polymers break down into smaller units (monomers), they use a water molecule for each bond broken by these reactions. Such reactions are hydrolysis reactions. Dehydration and hydrolysis reactions are similar for all macromolecules, but each monomer and polymer reaction is specific to its class. Dehydration reactions typically require an investment of energy for new bond formation, while hydrolysis reactions typically release energy by breaking bonds.
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are a group of macromolecules that are a vital energy source for the cell and provide structural support to plant cells, fungi, and all of the arthropods that include lobsters, crabs, shrimp, insects, and spiders. Carbohydrates can be classified into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Glucose storage, in the form of polymers like starch or glycogen, makes it slightly less accessible for metabolism; however, this prevents it from leaking out of the cell or creating a high osmotic pressure that could cause the cell to uptake excessive water.
Proteins Proteins are a class of macromolecules that perform a diverse range of functions for the cell. They help in metabolism by acting as enzymes, carriers, or hormones and provide structural support. The building blocks of proteins are amino acids.
Lipids Lipids are a class of macromolecules that are nonpolar and hydrophobic in nature. Major types include fats and oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Fats are a stored form of energy and are also known as triacylglycerols or triglycerides. Cholesterol is a type of steroid and is an important constituent of the plasma membrane, where it helps to maintain the membrane&#39;s fluid nature.
Nucleic acids Nucleic acids are molecules composed of nucleotides that direct cellular activities such as cell division and protein synthesis. There are two types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA. DNA carries the cell&#39;s genetic blueprint and passes it on from parents to offspring. RNA is involved in protein synthesis and its regulation.
Inorganic ions
Inorganic ions constitute less than 1% of the cell mass but are critical to cell function. Those found in a cell include sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, phosphate, and chloride.
This text has been adapted from <a href="https://openstax.org/details/books/biology-2e">Openstax, Biology 2e, Unit 1: </a><a href="https://openstax.org/details/books/biology-2e">The Chemistry of Life</a>.

The cell is chemically composed of water, organic molecules and inorganic ions.
Water
The polarity of the water molecule and its resulting hydrogen ...

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KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

cell chemistry: water and macromolecules

Cell chemistry includes water, organic molecules, and inorganic ions. These materials shape how cells store energy, build structures, and carry out life processes. Most cellular chemistry and metabolism happen in the watery cytoplasm.

Water is a key part of the cell because it has special properties tied to its polarity. In a water molecule, hydrogen and oxygen form polar covalent bonds, so the molecule has no net charge but does have a slightly positive end and a slightly negative end. Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, so shared electrons spend more time near oxygen. This polarity lets water molecules attract each other and form hydrogen bonds.

Water also interacts with other substances in important ways. It can dissolve polar molecules and attract ions. A substance that mixes well with water is hydrophilic, while nonpolar substances such as oils and fats are hydrophobic. Water also has high heat capacity and a high heat of vaporization, and it shows cohesive and adhesive behavior. When water dissociates into ions, it helps form the basis of pH.

The cell also contains the four major classes of biological macromolecules: proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids. Macromolecules are large molecules built from smaller monomers that join by covalent bonds to make polymers. Polymers have properties that are different from their building blocks, including lower osmotic pressure than the parts would create alone. Monomers join in dehydration, or condensation, reactions, which release water. Polymers break apart in hydrolysis reactions, which use water. Dehydration usually needs energy, while hydrolysis usually releases energy.

Carbohydrates provide energy and structural support. They can be monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides. Cells store glucose in polymers such as starch or glycogen. This storage form is less available for metabolism, but it helps keep glucose from leaking out and helps prevent high osmotic pressure that could draw too much water into the cell.

Proteins have many jobs in the cell. They can act as enzymes, carriers, or hormones, and they also provide structural support. Their building blocks are amino acids. Lipids are nonpolar and hydrophobic. Major lipid types include fats and oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Fats, also called triacylglycerols or triglycerides, store energy. Cholesterol is a steroid that helps maintain the fluid nature of the plasma membrane.

Nucleic acids are made of nucleotides and direct cell activities such as cell division and protein synthesis. DNA stores the genetic blueprint and passes it from parents to offspring. RNA helps with protein synthesis and its control. Inorganic ions make up less than 1% of cell mass, but they are still essential. Important ions include sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, phosphate, and chloride.

Cell Chemistry: Water and Macromolecules

functional groups

Functional Groups in Organic Chemistry

Functional groups in organic chemistry are groups of atoms that give molecules specific properties. When these groups attach to a carbon skeleton, they can change how the molecule behaves. Some functional groups make a molecule hydrophilic, or water-attracting. Others make it hydrophobic, or water-repelling. Functional groups are a key part of organic chemistry and are also found in major biological molecules. They appear in carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Each functional...

structure of lipids

Lipids, Fats, and Cell Membranes

Lipids are nonpolar molecules that do not mix well with water. They are hydrophobic, which means “water fearing,” because they contain mostly nonpolar carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds. In cells, lipids store long-term energy as fats, help insulate plants and animals, and form protective water-repellent layers on feathers and fur. They are also part of cell membranes and serve as building blocks for many hormones. Common lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. A...

Cell chemistry includes water, organic molecules, and inorganic ions. These materials shape how cells store energy, build structures, and carry out life processes. Most cellular chemistry and metabolism happen in the watery cytoplasm. Water is a key part of the cell because it has special properties tied to its polarity. In a water molecule, hydrogen and oxygen form polar covalent bonds, so the molecule has no net charge but does have a slightly positive end and a slightly negative end. Oxygen...

dna base pairing

Chargaff’s Rules and DNA Pairing

Chargaff’s rules and DNA base pairing explain how DNA strands match up. In double-stranded DNA, adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T), and guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C). Chargaff also found that A equals T, G equals C, and the total amount of purines (A and G) equals the total amount of pyrimidines (C and T). Watson and Crick later showed why these matches matter. A forms two hydrogen bonds with T, while G forms three hydrogen bonds with C. These pairings keep the DNA double helix a...

chemistry of carbohydrates

Carbohydrates as Energy and Storage Molecules

Carbohydrates are important energy sources in human and animal diets. Grains, fruits, and vegetables are natural sources of carbohydrates. They help provide energy to the body, especially through glucose, a simple sugar found in starch and many staple foods. Carbohydrates are identified by the stoichiometric formula (CH2O)n, where n is the number of carbons in the molecule. This means the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is usually 1:2:1. The name carbohydrate comes from this pattern,...

protein and protein structure

How Protein Shape Controls Function

Proteins are a major class of organic molecules in living systems, and their shape helps determine what they do. They can act as structural, regulatory, contractile, or protective molecules. They also take part in transport, storage, membranes, toxins, and enzymes. All proteins are polymers of amino acids arranged in a linear sequence. A protein’s function depends on its three-dimensional form. For example, an enzyme works when its active site can bind a specific substrate. If local changes or...

amino acids

Amino Acids and Protein Building

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Each amino acid has the same basic structure. A central carbon atom, called the alpha carbon, is bonded to an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a hydrogen atom. Each amino acid also has an R group, or side chain, attached to the central carbon. The R group is different for every amino acid. It helps determine whether an amino acid is acidic, basic, polar, or nonpolar. Scientists call these molecules amino acids because they contain both amino...

peptide bonds

Peptide Bond Formation and Shape

Peptide bonds join amino acids into peptides and polypeptides. They form when the carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amino group of another. This dehydration reaction releases a water molecule and creates a covalent link. As more amino acids are added, the chain becomes a polypeptide. Each polypeptide has a free amino group at one end. This end is the N-terminal, or amino-terminal. The other end has a free carboxyl group. This end is the C-terminal, or carboxyl-terminal. The...

nucleic acids

DNA and RNA: Genetic Instructions

DNA and RNA are the nucleic acids that store genetic information and help direct cell activity. These macromolecules carry the cell’s genetic blueprint and the instructions it uses to function. DNA is the genetic material in all living organisms, from single-celled bacteria to multicellular mammals. In eukaryotic cells, DNA is found in the nucleus and also in organelles such as chloroplasts and mitochondria. In prokaryotes, DNA is not enclosed in a membrane. The full genetic content of a cell...

dna replication

DNA Copying: Leading and Lagging Strands

DNA replication copies genetic material before a cell divides. Each original DNA strand serves as a template for a new complementary strand. The result is semiconservative replication, which means each new DNA molecule contains one old strand and one new strand. The two daughter cells then receive DNA with the same sequence. Replication starts when helicase separates the two strands of the double helix. This creates a Y-shaped replication fork. Primase then adds short RNA primers that give DNA...

from dna to protein

The Genetic Code and Codons

The genetic code and codons explain how cells turn DNA information into proteins. Genes first direct the sequence of mRNA, and mRNA then directs the sequence of amino acids that make up proteins. Specific proteins and RNAs carry out this decoding. Cells copy DNA into mRNA so the original DNA stays protected while the cell uses the message for protein synthesis. Copying DNA to RNA is relatively simple. One nucleotide is added to the mRNA strand for every nucleotide read on the DNA strand.

polymers

Polymer Chains and How They Form

Polymers are long chains of molecules made from repeating units called monomers. The word polymer comes from the Greek words "poly," meaning many, and "mer," meaning parts. Polymers can be found in nature, such as DNA and proteins, or made synthetically, such as plastics. A polymer’s shape helps define its properties. Some polymers form linear chains, while others are branched or arranged in complex networks. Functional groups on a polymer also affect how it behaves. The repeating units in a...

key terms and concepts

Explore how water, macromolecules, and inorganic ions shape cell function. Learn about polarity, pH, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, DNA, and RNA.

Cell Chemistry: Water and Macromolecules | JoVE K12

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Florida Department of Education

High School

Life Science

SC.912.L.14

SC.912.L.14.1

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

Biology

BIO.5

BIO.5.A

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3.3.9-12.I

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3.3.9-12.L

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3.3.9-12.N

Cell Chemistry: Water and Macromolecules

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