Name: animal classification and adaptation
Uploaded: 2019-01-31T09:27:27.000Z
Duration: 6 min 8 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

Life Sciences

ecosystems-interactions-energy-and-dynamics

Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy And Dynamics

HS-LS2-7

Animal Diversity

名前以外に、馬とタツノオトシゴの共通点は何ですか?見た目は大きく異なりますが、どちらも動物です。一般的に、動物は運動性、つまり独立した運動が可能で、エネルギーとして有機物を消費し、有性生殖が可能な多細胞生物と定義されています。種は、例えば肺や鰓などの生息地での適応度を最大化するために、特定の機能を持つさまざまな形質を進化させてきました。経験則として、形は機能に従う、つまり、特徴の機能はその構造と外観によって予測できるということです。たとえば、ガラパゴス諸島のさまざまなフィンチ種は、蜜を消費するための細いくちばしや大きな種子を割るための厚いくちばしなど、特定の食事のためにさまざまなくちばしを進化させてきました。したがって、摂食に関与する構造を観察することで、種の食事を予測することができます。
進化の系統樹の分岐点を示す特徴があり、これは動物の生命の全系統樹全体に当てはまります。動物の進化系統樹の基本構造を見ると、それは多くの異なる門に分割され、各門は主要な共有特性によって定義されていることがわかります。これらについて簡単に見ていきましょう。
最初の主要な門はポリフェラで、単に細孔のベアリングを意味します。成虫として静止しているポリフェラには、スポンジなどのフィルターフィーダーが含まれています。対称性の欠如と明確な組織層は、ポリフェラを他のグループから分離し、生物全体が小さな細胞グループから再成長できる巨大な再生能力をそれらに与えます。
次の門である刺胞動物には、イソギンチャクとクラゲが含まれ、このグループは、先端に特殊な細胞を持つ触手が特徴で、獲物を刺して鎮圧するために使用します。刺胞動物は、中心軸に沿って等しい部分に分割でき、内側に内胚葉、外側に外胚葉の2つの組織層を持っているため、放射状に対称的です。これにより、クニダリアンは単一の開口部を持つ単純な腸を開発することができました。
Platyhelminthesは、文字通りフラットワームを意味し、私たちの次のグループです。フラットワームは左右対称性を示し、1つの軸に沿って鏡像の半分を持っています。左右対称性により、これらの動物が周囲と継続的に相互作用する前端または頭部近くの感覚器官の集中である頭蓋化が可能になりました。セファリゼーションは、食料源に向かって移動するなどの方向移動を可能にしました。Platyhelminthesはまた、外胚葉と内胚葉の間に挟まれた3番目の組織層である中胚葉を開発しました。
動物がより複雑になるにつれて、体腔と呼ばれる中胚葉が並ぶ体腔を発達させたのは、ミミズのような環形動物である分節門でした。この新機能により、組織のさらなる特殊化が可能になり、臓器発生への道が開かれました。
この専門分野の複雑さは、タコ、カタツムリ、アサリなど多様なボディプランを含む軟体動物で増加します。このグループには、マントルで覆われ、所定の位置に保たれる多くの特殊な臓器があります。
節足動物は間違いなく最も多様な門であり、昆虫、甲殻類、クモ類が含まれます。彼らは関節付属肢を発達させた最初のグループであったため、それに応じて命名されました。また、感覚触角を持ち、体は頭部、胸部、腹部の3つの特殊な部分に分かれており、すべて外骨格で覆われています。
最後に、脊索動物門には、私たちの古い友人である種子を食べる人や他のすべての鳥、チュニカテスやホヤ、魚、両生類、爬虫類、哺乳類が含まれます。脊索動物の名前は、彼らが開発した新しい身体的特性である神経索に由来し、この典型的な脊索動物の胚にはっきりと見られます。これは、ほとんどの成人の脳と脊髄に発達します。それらはまた、脊椎または背骨となる脊索である軟骨構造を持っています。
ここでは、主要な動物門を非常に単純化した方法で特徴付けました。しかし、ご覧のとおり、単一の門内であっても、形態と機能には多くの違いがあります。これは、単一の門のさまざまなメンバーの多様な構造と生理機能を観察し、それらの機能と生活史を予測できることを意味します。
このラボでは、ザリガニとコオロギの構造を観察し、その機能を予測します。

動物の多様性

Kingdom Animaliaは、一連の共通の特性によって結合されたさまざまな生物で構成されています。いくつかの例外を除いて、動物は動き、有機物を消費し、性生殖する多細胞真核生物です。これらの属性は共有されていますが、この王国内の種も非常に多様です。この多様性は、各種が異なるニッチに適応しているためです。種のニッチには、その種の領域、機能、および環境内の他の生物的および非生物的要因との相互関係が含まれます。進化的適応によるニッチの専門化により、種はその環境で効果的に生存し、繁殖することができ、同じ生息地内の種間の競争を減らすことができます1-2。
<h4>分類</h4>
Kingdom Animaliaの多様性は、進化の系統に基づいて36の異なる門の分類につながりました。これらの門のうち、Porifera、Cnidaria、Platyhelminthes、Annelida、Mollusca、Arthropoda、およびChordataを含む7つの門について説明します。最初の門であるPorifera門は、最も早く、最も単純で、最も先祖代々の門です。これには、明確な組織層を欠く多細胞の非対称フィルター供給スポンジが含まれます。興味深いことに、スポンジは1つの細胞のレベルまでバラバラにされた後、再成長することができます。次に、複雑さが増すと、Cnidaria門にはクラゲとサンゴが含まれます。この門のメンバーは放射状に対称で、二葉芽球性です(2つの組織層を持っています)。これらの組織層は、内層を構成する内胚葉と、外層を形成する外胚葉と呼ばれます。Cnidaria門の生物は、食物が入り、老廃物が排泄される単一の開口部を持つ単純な腸を含んでいます。ポリフェラとクニダリアの両方に、成虫として主に座りがちな生物が含まれています。しかし、残りの門は、動きとより洗練された行動を可能にする適応を進化させてきました。
Cnidariaに続いて、PlatyhelminthesとAnnelidaと呼ばれる2つのワームの門があります。これら両方の門からの線虫は、皮膚全体でガスを交換することによって呼吸します。その結果、ほとんどのワームは表面積と体積の比率が大きく、湿った環境や水生環境に生息しています。これらの生物の皮膚は、ガスの効果的な拡散を促進するために湿ったままでなければなりません。ワームのもう一つの共通の特徴は、その左右対称性です。これは、生物を平面に沿って対称的に半分に分割できることを意味します。左右対称性は、線虫だけでなく、この進化の時点以降のすべての門にも見られます。このような対称性は、指向性の動きを可能にし、感覚器官が周囲と相互作用する前端または頭の近くに感覚器官を集中させるために重要です。線虫とその後の門には、外胚葉と内胚葉の間にある中胚葉と呼ばれる追加の組織層も含まれています。その結果、これらの生物は「三重芽球性」と見なされます。
2つの虫の門のうち、Platyhelminthesはより古く、単純です。これらには、扁形動物や吸虫が含まれ、自由生活または寄生虫である可能性があります。刺胞動物のように、彼らは単一の開口部を持つ単純な腸を持っています。環形動物門は、ミミズ、リーチ、多毛類など、より複雑です。これらの生物は、腸と体壁の間に体腔と呼ばれる体腔を含んでいます。彼らはまた、彼らの体のセグメンテーションのために区別されます。生物をセグメントに分割することは重要な進化のステップであり、各セグメントを特殊な形態や機能に適応させることができました。この門の主な進化的進歩には、食物をつかんで加工することを目的とした付属肢を持つ前部セグメントと、移動に特化した付属物を備えた後部セグメントの発達が含まれます。
次の門である軟体動物には、タコ、カタツムリ、ナメクジ、アサリなど、形態学的に非常に多様な生物が含まれています。このグループには、いくつかの定義機能があります。しかし、すべての軟体動物はマントルを持っており、呼吸器、消化管、生殖構造の保護カバーとして機能します。次に、最も多様な生物のグループは節足動物門です。この門だけで、甲殻類、昆虫、クモ類など、今日知られているすべての現生種と絶滅種の約4分の3を占めています。この門のすべてのメンバーは、外骨格と呼ばれるキチン質で作られた硬い外側のコーティングを持っています。この外骨格は、新しいより大きな外骨格が代わりになるために定期的に脱落します。Annelidaと同様に、節足動物はセグメント化されています。ただし、節足動物は、複数の繰り返しセクションではなく、頭、胸部、腹部と呼ばれる3つの異なるセグメントに分割されます。ほとんどのアンテナは、アンテナと呼ばれる特殊なセンシング構造を頭部に取り付けています。
最後に、脊索門には、背骨を持つすべての動物と、背骨を持たない動物が含まれます。このグループを結びつける2つの決定的な特徴は、神経索と脊索の存在です。神経索は脊索神経系の主要な部分であり、脊索は神経索と消化管の間を走る軟骨構造です。脊索門には、被嚢動物(幼虫から成虫への変態後に神経索と脊索を失う)、魚類、両生類、鳥類、爬虫類、哺乳類(ヒトを含む)が含まれます3。
<h4>形態と機能</h4>
Kingdom Animalia内の36の門すべてで観察された体の構造、生息地、行動の広大な多様性は、本当に驚くべきものです。これらの違いをよりよく理解するには、形式と機能の関係を考慮することが重要です。「形態」とは、単に構造物や生物の形状、大きさ、物質を意味し、「機能」はその構造物の使用方法を表します。したがって、構造の機能は、観察された形式に基づいて予測することも、その逆もまた然りです。たとえば、硬いナッツを割ることを専門とする鳥は頑丈で鋭いくちばしを持っていると予測されますが、果物を食べる鳥はくちばしが小さくて丸みを帯びている可能性があります。
重要なことは、生物の形態はその生理学的要件によって制約されるということです。たとえば、すべての動物は有機物を消費して消化し、環境とガスを交換しなければなりません。その結果、動物の形態への適応は、これらのプロセスを効率的に促進し続ける必要があります。例えば、小動物では、皮膚全体にガスを拡散させることが可能であり、しばしば有用です。ただし、動物のサイズが大きくなると、表面積と体積の比率は減少し、皮膚全体の拡散が十分なガス交換を提供できなくなります。このような大型動物は、クジラの肺や魚の鰓など、ガス交換を処理するための複雑なシステムを開発しました。その結果、ガス交換システムの形態は、生物のサイズとその環境の両方に依存します。
同様に、それは一般に、生物の生理学的要件によってのみ制約される機能に従って形成される他のタイプの適応に従います。しかし、形が機能に従わない場合もあります。痕跡構造とは、生物の祖先で目的を果たしたが、現在の形ではもはや役に立たない構造です。このような構造は、個人の適応度にほとんどまたはまったく影響を与えないため、集団内で進化的に賛成または反対に選択されることはありません。その結果、一部の構造は機能容量が制限されたまま存続します。例えば、大腸の先端にある小さなポケットである人間の虫垂は、私たちの祖先からの進化の名残です。この構造は有益な腸内細菌を貯蔵すると仮定されていますが、虫垂の除去は有害な影響なしに可能です。
<h4>コンバージェントエボリューション</h4>
Kingdom Animaliaに見られる適応の中には、進化の歴史を通じて何度も発展してきたものが多くあります。例として、コウモリの翼と鳥の翼を考えてみましょう。これらの構造は進化的関連性の結果ではなく、収斂進化4から生じたものである。収斂進化は、2つの生物が同様の環境圧力またはニッチのために独立して同様の形質を進化するときに発生します。コウモリ、鳥、インセットの翼はすべて独立して発達しており、「収束形質」と呼ばれています。明らかに、そのような形質は、それらが発生するニッチにとって非常に有益です。
<h4>参照</h4>
<ol class="references">
	<li>Hollins, J., et al. (2018).「漁業が誘発する進化に関する生理学的視点」。Evol Appl 11(5):561-576。</li>
	<li>Leong, M., et al. (2017).「人間が提供する生息地:家の節足動物の多様性と構成に影響を与える要因」。サイレップ7(1):15347。</li>
	<li>レイ、GA(2015)。「分子時計と後生動物神経系の初期進化」。Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 370(1684)を参照してください。</li>
	<li>Foll, M., et al. (2014).「アジアとアメリカの高高度への収斂適応の広範なシグナル」。アムJフムジュネ95(4):394-407。</li>
</ol>

Kingdom Animaliaは、一連の共通の特性によって結合されたさまざまな生物で構成されています。いくつかの例外を除いて、動物は多細胞です...

Education

JoVE Lab Manual

Biology

生物学

Evolution

進化

animal classification and adaptation

Kingdom Animalia includes a wide range of organisms that share a few basic traits. Most animals are multicellular eukaryotes that move, consume organic matter, and reproduce sexually. Even with those shared features, animals are extremely diverse because each species adapts to a different niche. A niche is the place, role, and set of interactions a species has with living and nonliving parts of its environment. Specialization helps species survive, reproduce, and reduce competition with others in the same habitat.

This diversity has led scientists to classify animals into 36 phyla based on evolutionary lineage. Seven major phyla are highlighted here: Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, and Chordata. Porifera is the earliest and simplest group. It includes sponges that are multicellular, asymmetrical, and filter feeding. They lack distinct tissue layers, and some can regrow even after being broken apart to the level of a single cell.

Cnidaria is a more complex phylum that includes jellyfish and corals. These animals are radially symmetric and diploblastic, which means they have two tissue layers: ectoderm and endoderm. They also have a simple gut with one opening for both food intake and waste removal. Both Porifera and Cnidaria include animals that are mostly sedentary as adults. The next groups show more movement and more complex behavior.

Platyhelminthes and Annelida are the two worm phyla discussed here. Worms in both groups exchange gases across their skin, so they usually need moist or aquatic environments and a large surface area to volume ratio. They also have bilateral symmetry, which means the body can be split into matching left and right halves. This symmetry supports directed movement and places sensory organs near the anterior tip, or head. Worms and later phyla are triploblastic because they also have a mesoderm, the middle tissue layer.

Platyhelminthes is the older and simpler worm phylum. It includes flatworms and trematodes, which may live freely or as parasites. Like cnidarians, these animals have a simple gut with one opening. Annelida is more complex and includes earthworms, leeches, and polychaetes. These animals have a coelom, which is a body cavity between the gut and the body wall, and they are segmented. Segmentation was an important evolutionary step because it allowed different body segments to specialize for different tasks, such as grasping food or moving.

Mollusca is a highly varied phylum that includes octopuses, snails, slugs, and clams. Members of this group share few obvious features, but all mollusks have a mantle. The mantle is a protective covering for the respiratory organs, digestive tract, and reproductive structures. Arthropoda is the most diverse animal phylum and includes crustaceans, insects, and arachnids. It makes up about three quarters of all known living and extinct species. Arthropods have a chitin-based exoskeleton that must be shed and replaced as they grow. They are also segmented, but their bodies are organized into the head, thorax, and abdomen, and most have antennae for sensing.

Chordata includes animals with a backbone and a few without one. Two features unite this group: a nerve cord and a notochord. The nerve cord is a major part of the chordate nervous system, and the notochord is a cartilaginous support structure between the nerve cord and the digestive tract. Chordates include tunicates, fish, amphibians, birds, reptiles, and mammals, including humans. Tunicates are unusual because they lose the nerve cord and notochord after they change from larva to adult.

The many body forms seen in Kingdom Animalia show how closely form and function are linked. Form means the shape, size, and substance of a structure, while function is the way that structure is used. A bird that cracks hard nuts is expected to have a sturdy, sharp beak, while a fruit-eating bird may have a smaller, rounder beak. Animal form is also limited by basic needs. Animals must eat, digest, and exchange gases with their environment, so any adaptation still has to support those jobs efficiently.

Gas exchange shows this link clearly. Small animals can often exchange gases across the skin by diffusion. As animals get larger, their surface area to volume ratio decreases, and diffusion across the skin is no longer enough. Larger animals therefore use specialized systems such as the lungs of a whale or the gills of a fish. The exact form of a gas exchange system depends on both body size and environment.

Some structures do not follow function in a useful way today. Vestigial structures are traits that were useful in an ancestor but have little or no current function. They do not strongly affect fitness, so natural selection does not act on them much. The human appendix is one example. It is a small pocket at the end of the large intestine, and it may store helpful gut bacteria, but it can be removed without harmful effects.

Similar traits can also evolve more than once. This is called convergent evolution. It happens when unrelated organisms independently develop similar features because they face similar environmental pressures or fill similar niches. Bat wings and bird wings are an example, and insect wings are another. These traits are convergent, not evidence of close evolutionary relatedness, and they show how similar needs can shape animal form in different lineages.

Animal Classification and Adaptation

natural selection

Fitness and Selection in Populations

Fitness and natural selection shape how traits spread through a population over time. Variation in inherited phenotypes gives evolution its raw material. When a trait is heritable and affects survival or reproduction, natural selection can change how common that trait becomes in later generations. Fitness means reproductive success compared with others in the same population. A heritable trait that improves fitness is called an adaptation. Individuals with higher lifetime reproductive success...

artificial selection

Selective Breeding in Dogs and Crops

Artificial selection, also called selective breeding, is the human choice of which plants or animals reproduce. It uses natural variation in a population to produce traits people want. Over many generations, this can create domesticated organisms that look very different from their wild ancestors. Natural selection is a different process, but it helps explain how change happens in nature. In adaptive evolution, differences in traits can lead to differences in survival and reproductive success.

hardy-weinberg and genetic drift

Hardy-Weinberg Tests for Population Change

Hardy-Weinberg tests help scientists check whether a population is changing over time. Because evolution happens slowly and over large areas, researchers often use mathematical models to study it. These models use measurable data and computer simulations to predict how allele frequencies may shift across many generations. The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation is one common model. It was developed independently in 1908 by G. H. Hardy and Wilhelm Weinberg. The equation gives the expected...

evolutionary relationships

DNA Evidence in Evolutionary Trees

DNA evidence helps scientists map evolutionary relationships between living things. Early classification began with Aristotle in the 4th century BC and was later improved during the Renaissance and by Carolus Linnaeus in the mid-1700s. These systems grouped species by physical similarity, such as the presence or absence of a backbone in vertebrates and invertebrates. Traits like a backbone are called synapomorphies, which are shared traits that likely came from a common ancestor. Physical...

plant diversity

Plant Adaptations for Land Life

Plant adaptations for land life explain how plants moved from water to land and diversified over time. Kingdom Plantae first appeared about 410 million years ago, when green algae began transitioning from aquatic environments to dry land. That shift was difficult, but land offered more light, more carbon dioxide, and far less competition than crowded oceans. Life on land forced plants to solve new problems. Aquatic plants can absorb water and nutrients directly from the surrounding liquid, use...

animal diversity

Kingdom Animalia includes a wide range of organisms that share a few basic traits. Most animals are multicellular eukaryotes that move, consume organic matter, and reproduce sexually. Even with those shared features, animals are extremely diverse because each species adapts to a different niche. A niche is the place, role, and set of interactions a species has with living and nonliving parts of its environment. Specialization helps species survive, reproduce, and reduce competition with others...

microbial and fungal diversity

How Scientists Identify Bacteria and Fungi

Bacteria and fungi are highly diverse organisms, and scientists identify them by looking at their structure, growth, and role in health. Some species help people, while others can cause disease, so learning how to tell them apart matters in biology and medicine. Biological taxonomists group organisms by evolutionary relatedness. Life is divided into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryota. Bacteria belong to the domain Bacteria, which includes single-celled prokaryotes. Prokaryotic...

evolution

Explore major animal phyla, from sponges to chordates, and see how form, function, vestigial structures, and convergent evolution shape adaptation.

Animal Classification and Adaptation | JoVE K12

Tennessee Academic Standards

Biological Change: Unity and Diversity

BIO1.LS4.3

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

BIO.8

BIO.8.d

Life Science

LS.3

LS.3.c

new-jersey-student-learning-standards-for-science

New Jersey Student Learning Standards for Science

Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics

HS-LS2-2

Arizona Science Standards

HS.L2

HS.L2U3.18

Alabama Course of Study Science

9-12

Ecosystems: Interactions Energy and Dynamics

9-12.B.2.9

Next Generation Science Standards

heredity-inheritance-and-variation-of-traits

Heredity: Inheritance and Variation of Traits

HS-LS4-6

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.L.15

SC.912.L.15.7

south-carolina-college-and-career-ready-science-standards

South Carolina College and Career Ready Science Standards

Biological Evolution: Unity and Diversity

B-LS4-6.

Georgia Standards of Excellence

Environmental Science

SEV2.

SEV2.a

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

Structure and Function

HS-LS1-2.

Entomology

SEN1.

SEN1.b

動物の多様性 を教える準備を、この 1 分間の教員向けガイドで行いましょう。JoVE Lab Manual の Biology ラボの主要な準備手順を解説します。

Biology の 動物の多様性 教員準備 - 2.1K+ 回の視聴 | JoVE Lab Manual

この 7 分間の学生プロトコル動画で、動物の多様性 の手順をステップごとに学びましょう。JoVE Lab Manual の Biology コレクションの一部です。

Biology の 動物の多様性 学生プロトコル - 3.3K+ 回の視聴 | JoVE Lab Manual

What is an Ecosystem?

Overview

An ecosystem is the interaction between all abiotic and biotic factors in an environment and can be classified as terrestrial or aquatic. ...

Trophic Levels

All organisms in an ecosystem occupy a trophic level in the food chain. The lowest level consists of primary producers, which synthesize their food from ...

Primary Production

The total amount of energy acquired by primary producers in an ecosystem is called gross primary production (GPP). However, of this energy, producers use ...

Production Efficiency

Net production efficiency (NPE) is the efficiency at which organisms assimilate energy into biomass for the next trophic level. Due to low metabolic rates ...

Trophic Efficiency

Trophic level transfer efficiency (TLTE) is a measure of the total energy transfer from one trophic level to the next. Due to extensive energy loss as ...

Life Histories

Constrained by limited energy and resources, organisms must compromise between offspring quantity and parental investment. This trade-off is represented ...

Energy Budgets and Reproductive Strategies

Organisms must balance energy intake with the energy required for growth, maintenance, and reproduction. These trade-offs result in a variety of ...

Population Growth

Population size is dynamic, increasing with birth rates and immigration, and decreasing with death rates and emigration. In ideal conditions with ...

Ecological Niches

All organisms have a position within an ecosystem. The complete set of living and nonliving factors&#x2014;including food resources, climate, and ...

Ecological Succession

Ecological succession is influenced by the processes of facilitation, inhibition, and toleration. Facilitation occurs when early successional species ...

Keystone Species

Measures of species biodiversity, such as richness (i.e., the number of species present) and evenness (i.e., their relative abundance), describe an ...

Symbiosis

Symbiotic relationships are long-term, close interactions between individuals of different species that affect the distribution and abundance of those ...

Competition

When organisms require the same limited resources within an environment, they may have to compete for them. Competition is a net-negative interaction. ...

Predator-Prey Interactions

Predators consume prey for energy. Predators that acquire prey and prey that avoid predation both increase their chances of survival and reproduction ...

Ecological Disturbance

An ecological disturbance is a temporary disruption in the environment resulting from abiotic, biotic, or anthropogenic factors, causing a pronounced ...

What is Biodiversity?

Biodiversity describes the variety of living things at multiple organizational levels: genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. Species diversity ...

Threats to Biodiversity

There have been five major extinction events throughout geological history, resulting in the elimination of biodiversity, followed by a rebound of species ...

Biodiversity and Human Values

Human civilization relies on biodiversity in many ways. Sudden changes in species biodiversity result in environmental changes that can modify weather ...

What is Photosynthesis?

All living organisms on Earth are directly or indirectly dependent on photosynthesis. It is the only biological process that can capture energy from ...

What is Conservation Biology?

Conservation biology is a scientific field that focuses on the preservation of biodiversity in order to protect ecosystems while meeting the needs of the ...

The Anatomy of Chloroplasts

Green algae and plants, including green stems and unripe fruit, harbor specialized organelles called chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis. They ...

Sustainable Development

As the human population continues to grow and use resources, we must be mindful of our planet&rsquo;s natural limits. Sustainable development provides a ...

Photosystems

Photosystems are multiprotein complexes that form the functional units of photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. They are found embedded in ...

Conservation of Small Populations

Small population sizes put a species at extreme risk of extinction due to a lack of variation, and a consequent decrease in adaptability. This weakens ...

The Photochemical Reaction Center

Reaction centers are pigment-protein complexes that initiate energy conversion from photons to chemical entities. Therefore, photochemical reaction center ...

What is Weather?

Overview

Weather refers to the current state of atmospheric conditions at a specific time and place. Weather is temporary and is influenced by the ...

The Antenna Complex

Plants and other photosynthetic organisms comprise pigments capable of absorption of direct sunlight. These pigments are present in the reaction center - ...

What is Climate?

Climate refers to the prevailing weather conditions in a specific area over an extended period. As the saying goes, &#8220;Climate is what you expect. ...

the-z-scheme-of-electron-transport-in-photosynthesis

The Z-Scheme of Electron Transport in Photosynthesis

The light reactions of photosynthesis assume a linear flow of electrons from water to NADP+. During this process, light energy drives the splitting of ...

Global Climate Change

Throughout its ~4.5 billion year history, the Earth has experienced periods of warming and cooling. However, the current drastic increase in global ...

The Calvin Benson Cycle

Ribulose 1,5- bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCo) is a critical enzyme that catalyzes carbon dioxide assimilation during photosynthesis. However, ...

Conservation of Declining Populations

Conservation of declining population focuses on ways of detecting, diagnosing, and halting a population decline. The approach uses methods to prevent ...

Introduction to Cellular Respiration

Organisms harvest energy from food, but this energy cannot be directly used by cells. Cells convert the energy stored in nutrients into a more usable ...

Habitat Fragmentation

Habitat fragmentation describes the division of a more extensive, continuous habitat into smaller, discontinuous areas. Human activities such as land ...

What is Glycolysis?

Overview
Cells make energy by breaking down macromolecules. Cellular respiration is the biochemical process that converts &#34;food energy&#34; (from the ...

Energy-requiring Steps of Glycolysis

Glucose is the source of nearly all energy used by organisms. The first step of converting glucose into usable energy is called glycolysis. Glycolysis ...

Energy-releasing Steps of Glycolysis

Glycolysis is divided into two phases based on whether energy is utilized or released. While the first phase consumes ATP, the second phase produces ...

ATP Synthase: Mechanism

In animals, the mitochondrial F1F0 ATP synthase is the key protein that synthesizes ATP molecules through a complex catalytic mechanism. While the nuclear ...

Outcomes of Glycolysis

Nearly all the energy used by cells comes from the bonds that make up complex organic compounds. These organic compounds are broken down into simpler ...

The ADP/ATP Carrier Protein

ADP/ATP carrier or AAC protein is the most abundant carrier protein in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It transports large quantities of ADP and ATP, ...

Pyruvate Oxidation

After glycolysis, the charged pyruvate molecules enter the mitochondria via active transport and undergo three enzymatic reactions. These reactions ensure ...

The Citric Acid Cycle: Overview

In aerobic organisms, the citric acid cycle is the second stage of cellular respiration wherein molecules derived from the breakdown of carbohydrates, ...

The Citric Acid Cycle: Output

The citric acid cycle is termed an amphibolic pathway as it operates both anabolically and catabolically. The cyclic reactions balance the flux of the ...

electron-transport-chain-complex-i-and-ii

Electron Transport Chain: Complex I and II

The mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) is the main energy generation system in the eukaryotic cells. However, mitochondria also produce ...

electron-transport-chain-complex-iii-and-iv

Electron Transport Chain: Complex III and IV

During the electron transport chain, electrons from NADH and FADH2 are first transferred to complexes I and II, respectively. These two complexes then ...

The Electron Transport Chain

The electron transport chain or oxidative phosphorylation is an exothermic process in which free energy released during electron transfer reactions is ...

the-supercomplexes-in-the-crista-membrane

The Supercomplexes in the Crista Membrane

The mitochondrial cristae membrane is the primary site for the oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) process of energy conversion mediated through ...

ATP Synthase: Structure

ATP synthase or ATPase is among the most conserved proteins found in bacteria, mammals, and plants. This enzyme can catalyze a forward reaction in ...

Use mathematical and/or computational representations to support explanations of factors that affect carrying capacity, biodiversity and populations of ecosystems at different scales. Emphasis is on quantitative analysis and comparison of the relationships among interdependent factors including boundaries, resources, climate and competition. Examples of mathematical comparisons could include graphs, charts, histograms, or population changes gathered from simulations or historical data sets.

HS-LS2-1

What are Biogeochemical Cycles?

The most common elements in organic molecules, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus, are only available in the ecosystem in limited ...

The Water Cycle

The Earth&rsquo;s hydrosphere includes all of the areas where the storage and movement of water occurs. Since water is the basis of all living processes, ...

The Carbon Cycle

Carbon is the basis of all organic matter on Earth, and is recycled through the ecosystem in two primary processes: one in which carbon is exchanged among ...

The Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen atoms, present in all proteins and DNA, are recycled between abiotic and biotic components of the ecosystem. However, the primary form of ...

Use mathematical representations to support claims for the cycling of matter and flow of energy among organisms in an ecosystem. Emphasis is on using a mathematical model of stored energy in biomass to describe the transfer of energy from one trophic level to another and that matter and energy are conserved as matter cycles and energy flows through ecosystems. Emphasis is on atoms and molecules such as carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen being conserved as they move through an ecosystem.

HS-LS2-4

Animal Classification and Adaptation

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