Name: naming aniline and ring amine derivatives
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Physical Science

Matter and its Interactions

PS.PSc.2.2

nomenclature-of-aryl-and-heterocyclic-amines

Nomenclature of Aryl and Heterocyclic Amines

フェニルアミン—最も単純なアリールアミンとその誘導体は、その一般名で知られており、置換点を示すために接頭辞o-、m-、およびp-が使用されます。
体系的な命名法では、それらをアニリンの誘導体と呼んでいます。環は、-NH2基を持つ炭素原子から番号が付けられ、置換基に最も低い位置を与える方向に続きます。
より置換されたアリールアミンの場合、最初の差点に最も低い位置が割り当てられ、置換基はアルファベット順にリストされます。
二級および第三級のアリールアミンは、N-置換アニリンと呼ばれます。
飽和複素環式アミンと不飽和複素環式アミンは、環のサイズと存在するヘテロ原子に基づいて特定の名前が付けられています。
番号付けは、N原子または原子量が最も高いヘテロ原子から始まり、他のヘテロ原子に最も低い位置を与える方向に続きます。
あるいは、接頭辞aza-またはdiaza-とlocantsは、環内のN個の原子の数を示します。

第二級アミンおよび第三級アミンの命名法

第二級アミンと第三級アミンは、アンモニアの水素の 2 つと 3 つがそれぞれアルキル基で置換された誘導体です。 第二アリールおよび複素環式アミンの命名法

最も単純な芳香族アミンはフェニルアミンで、芳香環に直接結合した –NH_2 官能基が含まれています。 アニリンという名前はこの骨格に指定されています。 図 1 に示すように、官能化アニリンの一般名には、置換位置を示すオルト、メタ、パラの接頭辞が含まれています。 さまざまな官能化アニリン誘導体にも、注目に値する簡単な名前が付けられています。

<img alt="Figure1" src="/files/ftp_upload/12854/12854-PT_Figure_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 135px;">

図1. 置換に基づく官能化アニリンの一般名。

体系的な命名法では、環には窒素含有炭素から置換基に最も低い位置を与える方向に番号が付けられます。 番号付けの順序は、環上に複数の置換基を持つアミンの場合、最初の相違点の最小番号を取得することです。 図 2 に示すように、置換基はアルファベット順にリストされています。 あるいは、ベンゼンアミンの誘導体とも呼ばれます。

<img alt="Figure2" src="/files/ftp_upload/12854/12854-PT_Figure_2v2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 140px;">

図2. アニリンのアルファベット順にリストされた置換基の例。

図3 に示すように、第二級および第三級芳香族アミンは、アミンの親名の前に N- 置換を付けた親第一級アミンにちなんで命名されます。

<img alt="Figure3" src="/files/ftp_upload/12854/12854-PT_Figure_3v2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 130px;">

図3. 第二級および第三級芳香族アミンの代表例。

N が複素環の一部である飽和および不飽和複素環アミンには、環のサイズとヘテロ原子に基づいた特定の名前があります。 図 4 は、ピロリジン、ピロール、ピペリジン、ピリジン、イミダゾールという一般名で知られるいくつかの生物学的アミンを示しています。

<img alt="Figure4" src="/files/ftp_upload/12854/12854-PT_Figure_4v2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 95px;">

図4. 生物学的複素環アミン。

複素環式アミンの命名法では、N に加えて他のヘテロ原子を含むアミンの場合、原子量の大きいヘテロ原子から番号付けが始まります。たとえば、図 5 に示すように、チアゾール中の硫黄には 1 という番号が付けられ、次の方向、他のヘテロ原子である窒素に対する最も小さい番号、に続きます。モルホリン中の酸素の存在でも同様の観察が見られます。

<img alt="Figure5" src="/files/ftp_upload/12854/12854-PT_Figure_5v2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 105px;">

図5. 他のヘテロ原子を含むアミンの番号順の代表例。

あるいは、接頭辞アザ-またはジアザ-が、窒素原子で置換された炭素の数を示すロケント番号とともに、親アルカンの前に使用されます。 これは、図 6 に示すように、DBU や DBN など、N 原子が縮合環系の一部である場合の二環系の命名法でより一般的です。

<img alt="Figure6" src="/files/ftp_upload/12854/12854-PT_Figure_6v2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 95px;">

図6. 二環式縮合環系の命名法の例。

級アミンおよび第三級アミンは、窒素原子に同一のアルキル基が結合している場合には対称であることも、複数の種類のアルキル基が存在する場合には非対称である場合もあります。 第二級アミンおよび第三級アミンの標準命名法は、第一級アミンに与えられた名前と似ています。 それらは一般にアルキルアミンと呼ばれます。 図 1 に示すように、対称的な第二級アミンおよび第三級アミンには、それぞれ接頭辞ジおよびトリが使用されます。 一方、非対称アミンの場合は、個々の置換基が識別され、アルファベット順にリストされます。

<img alt="Figure1" src="/files/ftp_upload/12853/12853-PT_Figure_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 90px;">

図1. 対称および非対称の第二級アミンおよび第三級アミンの命名法。

IUPAC の命名法では、第二級アミンおよび第三級アミンは N-アルキルアルカンアミンと呼ばれます。 構造の IUPAC 名は、次のプロトコルを介して割り当てられます。

1. まず、窒素原子に結合しているアルキル基を特定します。

2. 次に、最も長い鎖を親として選択し、他のアルキル基が置換基としてリストされます。 親炭化水素鎖に番号を付けるときは、窒素原子を含む炭素原子に最も小さい番号を割り当てます。

3. 次に、各置換基に位置を割り当てます。 窒素原子に結合したアルキル基の位置として文字 N を使用します。

4. 最後に、キラル中心の配置が存在する場合は、名前の先頭にその配置を指定します。

上記の 2 つの例を図 2 に示します。

<img alt="Figure2" src="/files/ftp_upload/12853/12853-PT_Figure_2v2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 115px;">

図2. 2 つのアミン例の IUPAC 名。

第四級アンモニウム イオンの IUPAC 名は、第二級および第三級アミンとして命名されて割り当てられます。 ただし、図 3 に示すように、接尾辞 -アミンは -アンモニウムに置き換えられ、その後に対イオンの名前が続きます。

<img alt="Figure3" src="/files/ftp_upload/12853/12853-PT_Figure_3v2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 115px;">

図3. さまざまな第四級アミンの IUPAC 名。

最も単純な芳香族アミンはフェニルアミンであり、芳香族環に直接結合した-NH2官能基を含んでいます。アニリンという名前は...

Education

JoVE Core

Organic Chemistry

有機化学

Unit 1

ユニット1

Amines

アミン

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

主要用語と概念

naming aniline and ring amine derivatives

Naming aniline and ring amine derivatives follows clear rules for aromatic and heterocyclic amines. The simplest aromatic amine is phenylamine, which has an –NH2 group directly attached to an aromatic ring. The common name for this skeleton is aniline.

Functionalized anilines often use the prefixes ortho-, meta-, and para- to show where a substituent is placed on the ring. Many of these compounds also have trivial, or common, names. For systematic naming, the ring is numbered from the carbon attached to nitrogen. Numbering then continues in the direction that gives the lowest locant to the next substituent, and substituents are listed in alphabetical order. These compounds may also be named as benzenamine derivatives.

Secondary and tertiary aromatic amines are named from the parent primary amine. In these names, N-substituents are written before the parent amine name. This shows which groups are attached to the nitrogen atom itself.

Heterocyclic amines also have specific names. These compounds contain nitrogen as part of the ring, and they may be saturated or unsaturated. Common biological examples include pyrrolidine, pyrrole, piperidine, pyridine, and imidazole.

When a heterocycle contains more than one heteroatom, numbering starts at the heteroatom with the higher atomic weight. The numbering then continues in the direction that gives the other heteroatom the lowest possible number. For example, sulfur is numbered first in thiazole, and oxygen is numbered first in morpholine.

Another naming style uses the prefixes aza- or diaza-. These prefixes show how many carbons in the parent alkane are replaced by nitrogen atoms, and the locant number gives the nitrogen position. This approach is often used for bicyclic fused ring systems, such as DBU and DBN.

Naming Aniline and Ring Amine Derivatives

naming-aniline-and-ring-amine-derivatives

amines: introduction

Amines: Types and Classifications

Amines are organic derivatives of ammonia. They form when one or more ammonia protons are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups. Chemists sort amines by the number of organyl groups attached to the nitrogen atom. Primary amines have one organyl group on nitrogen. Secondary amines have two, and tertiary amines have three. If a fourth organyl group is present, the nitrogen carries a formal positive charge. These compounds are called quaternary ammonium salts. Amines are also grouped as aliphatic or...

nomenclature of primary amines

Naming Primary Amines in Organic Chemistry

Primary amines are named by following a few clear organic chemistry rules. These rules help identify the amino group, written as –NH2, and show how it connects to the carbon chain. Common names for primary amines use the alkyl group name plus the suffix -amine. In IUPAC naming, the final -e of the parent alkane is changed to -amine, which gives an alkanamine name. The longest carbon chain attached to the amine nitrogen is chosen, and the carbon bonded to nitrogen gets the lowest locant. Any...

nomenclature of secondary and tertiary amines

nomenclature-of-secondary-and-tertiary-amines

Naming Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary Amines

Secondary and tertiary amines are ammonia derivatives with two or three hydrogen atoms replaced by alkyl groups. They may be symmetrical, with the same alkyl groups attached to nitrogen, or unsymmetrical, with more than one kind of alkyl group present. These compounds are often named as alkylamines in standard naming. For symmetrical secondary and tertiary amines, the prefixes di- and tri- are used. For unsymmetrical amines, each substituent is named and listed in alphabetical order. IUPAC...

nomenclature of aryl and heterocyclic amines

Naming aniline and ring amine derivatives follows clear rules for aromatic and heterocyclic amines. The simplest aromatic amine is phenylamine, which has an –NH2 group directly attached to an aromatic ring. The common name for this skeleton is aniline. Functionalized anilines often use the prefixes ortho-, meta-, and para- to show where a substituent is placed on the ring. Many of these compounds also have trivial, or common, names. For systematic naming, the ring is numbered from the carbon...

structure of amines

Amines: Shape, Bonding, and Chirality

Amines have a nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons. That lone pair affects the shape of the molecule, the bond angles, and the bond lengths around nitrogen. In most amines, nitrogen is hybridized and attached to three substituents. The bond angle is about 108°, which is a little less than the 109.5° tetrahedral angle. The C–N–H bond angle is slightly larger at 112°, and the carbon-nitrogen bond length is 147 pm. This bond is longer than the carbon-oxygen bond in alcohols, which is 143...

physical properties of amines

Amines: Smell, Solubility, and Boiling Points

Amines show clear physical properties that depend on molecular size and structure. Low molecular weight amines are usually gases at room temperature, while higher molecular weight amines are often liquids or solids. Many low molecular weight amines also have a rotten fish-like smell, and diamines usually have a pungent odor. Amines are polar molecules, so they can take part in intermolecular hydrogen bonding. Primary and secondary amines have N–H bonds that allow these interactions. Because of...

basicity of aliphatic amines

How Aliphatic Amines Act as Bases

Aliphatic amines act as bases because the nitrogen atom can accept a proton from an acid. They can also behave as Lewis bases, since the nitrogen lone pair can form a covalent bond with an electrophile. These properties make amines useful examples of basic behavior in organic chemistry. Amine basicity is commonly described in two ways. One method uses the basicity constant, K b, for the reaction in which the amine removes a proton from water. A lower K b means a stronger base. By this measure,...

basicity of aromatic amines

Why Aromatic Amines Are Less Basic

Aromatic amines are less basic than aliphatic amines because the nitrogen lone pair can share electrons with the aryl ring through resonance. When the lone pair is delocalized, it is less available to accept a proton, so the amine shows weaker basicity. Substituents on the aryl ring can change this effect. Electron-donating groups increase electron density on the ring and raise the basicity of the amine. Electron-withdrawing groups have the opposite effect and can lower basicity sharply. A...

basicity of heterocyclic aromatic amines

Why Ring Nitrogen Changes Amine Basicity

Heterocyclic amines can show very different basicity depending on where the nitrogen atom sits in the ring. When nitrogen is part of an alicyclic ring, the amine behaves much like an alkylamine. When nitrogen is part of an aromatic ring, the compound is usually much less basic than its alicyclic counterpart. Piperidine and pyridine show this difference clearly. Piperidine is significantly more basic than pyridine, with pKb values of 2.8 and 8.8, respectively. The reason is the orbital that...

nmr spectroscopy of amines

Amines in NMR: Key Signal Patterns

Amines in NMR spectroscopy show clear signal patterns that help identify their structure. In proton NMR, primary amines and secondary amines give a broad N–H signal between δ 0.5 and 5 ppm. The exact position can change with sample concentration, hydrogen bonding, and the solvent used. The N–H protons in amines are labile, which means they exchange quickly in solution. Because of this fast proton exchange, they do not split with nearby protons. Their peak stays broad and does not reveal the...

mass spectrometry of amines

Amines in Mass Spectra

Amines in mass spectra show a clear pattern that helps identify them. Their parent ions often have odd molecular weights, which follows the nitrogen rule. That rule says a molecule with an odd number of nitrogen atoms gives a molecular ion with an odd molecular weight. Amines also break apart in a characteristic way during alpha cleavage. Alpha cleavage means the bond next to the nitrogen atom splits. This forms nitrogen-containing cations called iminium ions and alkyl radicals. The molecular...

preparation of amines: alkylation of ammonia and amines

preparation-of-amines-alkylation-of-ammonia-and-amines

Alkylation of Ammonia to Make Amines

To make only primary amines, chemists use specific reaction conditions such as excess ammonia. Ammonia is the most common substrate because it is cheap and readily available. Tertiary alkyl halides are not the best choice for alkylation because they are too hindered. Secondary alkyl halides can react, but they are also less preferred because they tend to undergo elimination reactions.

preparation of 1&deg; amines: azide synthesis

Azide Route to Primary Amines

Azide synthesis is a useful route to primary amines. It helps avoid the polyalkylation that can happen when ammonia is alkylated directly. In that direct reaction, unwanted polyalkylated amines and a quaternary ammonium salt can form. In the azide method, azide ions act as strong nucleophiles. A nucleophile is a species that donates an electron pair in a reaction. They react with unhindered alkyl halides to make alkyl azides. Alkyl azides do not take part in more nucleophilic substitution...

preparation of 1&deg; amines: gabriel synthesis

preparation-of-1-amines-gabriel-synthesis

Gabriel Synthesis for Primary Amines

Gabriel synthesis is a selective way to make primary amines. It avoids direct alkylation, which can create polyalkylated products. For that reason, it is a preferred method when the goal is to make only one alkylated amine product. The reaction starts with phthalimide, which holds nitrogen in a protected form. A strong base such as NaOH or KOH removes a hydrogen from phthalimide and forms an anion. This anion acts as a nucleophile and attacks an alkyl halide, giving N-alkylphthalimide. The...

preparation of amines: reduction of oximes and nitro compounds

preparation-of-amines-reduction-of-oximes-and-nitro-compounds

Routes to Amines from Oximes and Nitro Groups

Oximes and nitro compounds can both be converted into primary amines. Oximes are reduced by catalytic hydrogenation, hydride reduction, or sodium metal reduction. A primary amine is an amine with one carbon group attached to nitrogen, so this step is an important way to build nitrogen-containing molecules. Nitro compounds follow a similar path to primary amines. Aliphatic and aromatic nitro compounds can be reduced by catalytic hydrogenation or by active metals such as Fe, Zn, and Sn in the...

preparation of amines: reduction of amides and nitriles

preparation-of-amines-reduction-of-amides-and-nitriles

Making Amines from Nitriles and Amides

Nitriles and amides can both be turned into amines by reduction. Nitriles are reduced to primary amines with reducing agents such as lithium aluminum hydride or by catalytic hydrogenation. In this reaction, the amino group is added with one extra carbon in the chain. Nitriles are often made first from alkyl halides and sodium cyanide. This step follows an S N 2 mechanism, and primary alkyl halides are the best substrates for preparing nitriles. The nitrile can then be reduced to the primary...

preparation of amines: reductive amination of aldehydes and ketones

preparation-of-amines-reductive-amination-of-aldehydes-and-ketones

Making Amines with Reductive Amination

Reductive amination is a way to make amines from carbonyl compounds and primary amines. A carbonyl compound is a molecule with a carbon-oxygen double bond. The reaction first forms an imine, and then the same mixture is reduced to give a secondary amine. Selective reducing agents make this step work. Sodium cyanoborohydride and sodium triacetoxyborohydride are commonly used because they reduce the imine without reacting too aggressively. Reductive amination with sodium cyanoborohydride is...

preparation of 1&deg; amines: hofmann and curtius rearrangement overview

preparation-of-1-amines-hofmann-and-curtius-rearrangement-overview

Carbon-Loss Routes to Primary Amines

Carbon-loss reactions can turn certain amides into primary amines. The Hofmann rearrangement uses an aqueous base and a halogen to remove the carbonyl group as carbon dioxide and form a primary amine. It often gives aryl and alkyl primary amines in high yield, and the products are free of secondary and tertiary amine contamination. The Curtius rearrangement follows a similar goal but starts from an acyl azide. When heated, the acyl azide converts into a primary amine and releases nitrogen gas...

preparation of 1&deg; amines: hofmann and curtius rearrangement mechanism

preparation-of-1-amines-hofmann-and-curtius-rearrangement-mechanism

Primary Amine Synthesis by Rearrangement

Hofmann and Curtius rearrangements are used to make primary amines from carboxylic acid derivatives. In the Hofmann rearrangement, a primary amide is treated with a base and then halogenated to form an N-haloamide. A second proton loss gives a stable anionic species that rearranges to an isocyanate after an alkyl group migrates from the carbonyl carbon to the nearby nitrogen. The isocyanate then reacts with water to form carbamic acid. Carbamic acid breaks down on its own to release carbon...

amines to amides: acylation of amines

Using Acylation to Modify Amines

Amines can be modified by acylation to form amides. In this reaction, a carboxylic acid derivative such as an acid chloride, ester, or anhydride provides the acyl group. The process uses two equivalents of amine, and each one has a different job. The first amine acts as a nucleophile. It attacks the carbonyl carbon and forms a tetrahedral intermediate. The leaving group then leaves, and the C=O bond is restored. The second amine acts as a Brønsted base, meaning it removes a proton from the...

amines to alkenes: hofmann elimination

Hofmann Elimination and Alkene Formation

Hofmann elimination turns an amine into an alkene through an E2 elimination. The amine is first changed into a good leaving group. A quaternary ammonium salt is formed by treating the amine with an excess of alkyl halide, which gives a halide salt. Next, the halide salt is converted into a hydroxide salt. This hydroxide salt acts as a base during the elimination. With heat, the hydroxide removes a proton from the beta carbon. At the same time, an alkene forms and a neutral amine molecule...

amines to alkenes: cope elimination

Syn Elimination in Cope Reaction

The Cope elimination reaction converts tertiary amines into alkenes. It uses hydrogen peroxide and heat. The process starts with oxidation of the tertiary amine to form an amine oxide. The amine oxide then acts as a base during the elimination step. The reaction follows syn stereochemistry, which means the groups leave from the same side. It also proceeds through a cyclic transition state. The N,N-dimethyl hydroxylamine group is formed as the leaving group. The major product is usually the...

1&deg; amines to diazonium or aryldiazonium salts: diazotization with nano2 overview

1-amines-to-diazonium-or-aryldiazonium-salts-diazotization-with-nano2

Nitrous Acid Reactions with Amines

Nitrous acid reacts with amines in acidic conditions, and the products depend on the type of amine. It is a key nitrogen-containing acid, but it is weaker than nitric acid. Nitrous acid has a pKa of 3.37, so it ionizes in water to form nitrite ion and hydronium ion. Nitrous acid is unstable, so it is made in situ, or formed in the reaction mixture as needed. A sodium nitrite solution is combined with a cold aqueous acid such as hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid. In acid, the –OH group of...

1&deg; amines to diazonium or aryldiazonium salts: diazotization with nano2 mechanism

Diazotizing Primary Amines with Nitrous Acid

Diazotizing primary amines with nitrous acid forms diazonium salts. The reaction begins with nitrous acid, a weak and unstable acid made in situ from sodium nitrite and cold, dilute hydrochloric acid. In acidic solution, nitrous acid is protonated and loses water to form the nitrosonium ion, which acts as the electrophile. Primary amines react with the nitrosonium ion to start diazotization. The amine serves as the nucleophile and attacks the electrophile. After deprotonation, an N-nitrosamine...

2&deg; amines to n-nitrosamines: reaction with nano2

2-amines-to-n-nitrosamines-reaction-with-nano2

Nitrosamine Formation from Secondary Amines

Secondary amines can form N-nitrosamines when they react with nitrous acid. Nitrous acid is weak and unstable, so it is made in the reaction mixture from sodium nitrite and a strong acid such as hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid. The reaction is carried out in cold conditions. In acid, nitrous acid becomes protonated. It then loses water and forms the nitrosonium ion, a reactive electrophile. The secondary amine acts as a nucleophile and attacks this ion. That step gives an N-nitrosammonium...

diazonium group substitution with halogens and cyanide: sandmeyer and schiemann reactions

diazonium-group-substitution-with-halogens-cyanide-sandmeyer

Making Aryl Halides from Diazonium Salts

Arenediazonium salts can be used to make substituted aromatic compounds. In these reactions, the diazonium group is replaced by other functional groups such as halides, hydroxyl, and nitrile. The transcript focuses on how this chemistry is used to form aryl chlorides, bromides, fluorides, iodides, and nitriles. When arenediazonium salts react with copper(I) salts of chloride, bromide, or cyanide, they form the corresponding aryl chloride, aryl bromide, or aryl nitrile. These are called...

diazonium group substitution: &ndash;oh and &ndash;h

Arenediazonium Salt Reactions: Phenols and H

Arenediazonium salt reactions show how a diazonium group can be replaced by other functional groups. These reactions begin with diazotization, the formation of an arenediazonium salt from a primary arylamine. The process uses nitrous acid, which is made in situ from sodium nitrite and a strong acid under cold conditions. In acidic solution, nitrous acid breaks down to form nitrosonium ions. A primary arylamine then attacks the nitrosonium ion. This first step leads to an N-nitrosoaminium ion...

aryldiazonium salts to azo dyes: diazo coupling

aryldiazonium-salts-to-azo-dyes-diazo-coupling

Diazo Coupling and Azo Dye Formation

Diazo coupling is the reaction that forms azo dyes from aryldiazonium salts and highly activated aromatic compounds. The product contains an —N=N— azo linkage, and the nitrogen atoms from the diazonium salt remain in the product. Phenols and arylamines are common activated partners for this reaction. The coupling usually takes place at the para position on the aromatic ring. If the para position is already occupied, the reaction shifts to the ortho position instead. The mechanism is an...

amines to sulfonamides: the hinsberg test

Amines and the Hinsberg Reagent Test

The Hinsberg test identifies primary, secondary, and tertiary amines by their reaction with benzenesulfonyl chloride, also called the Hinsberg reagent. It is named after Oscar Hinsberg. The test uses excess aqueous base, and the mixture is then acidified to show different results for each amine type. A primary amine reacts with the Hinsberg reagent to form an N-substituted benzenesulfonamide. The sulfonyl group pulls electron density away and makes the N-H proton acidic. Because of this, base...

key terms and concepts

Learn how aniline, aromatic amines, and heterocyclic amines are named using ortho/meta/para labels, N-substituents, and heterocycle numbering rules.

Naming Aniline and Ring Amine Derivatives | JoVE K12

organic chemistry

JoVE Core 有機化学では、立体化学、反応、メカニズムの基本概念を、簡潔でわかりやすいアニメーション ビデオ レッスンを使用して説明します。さらに、科学者の実際のビデオでは、世界中の今日の研究室で行われている古典的および独自の研究実験における関連概念の適用を示しています。

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Phase Transitions

Whether solid, liquid, or gas, a substance&#39;s state depends on the order and arrangement of its particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). Particles in the ...

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Phase Transitions: Vaporization and Condensation

The physical form of a substance changes on changing its temperature. For example, raising the temperature of a liquid causes the liquid to vaporize ...

Vapor Pressure

When a liquid vaporizes in a closed container, gas molecules cannot escape. As these gas phase molecules move randomly about, they will occasionally ...

Clausius-Clapeyron Equation

The equilibrium between a liquid and its vapor depends on the temperature of the system; a rise in temperature causes a corresponding rise in the vapor ...

Phase Transitions: Melting and Freezing

Heating a crystalline solid increases the average energy of its atoms, molecules, or ions, and the solid gets hotter. At some point, the added energy ...

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Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and ...

Heating and Cooling Curves

When a substance&#8212;isolated from its environment&#8212;is subjected to heat changes, corresponding changes in temperature and phase of the substance ...

Phase Diagrams

A phase diagram combines plots of pressure versus temperature for the liquid-gas, solid-liquid, and solid-gas phase-transition equilibria of a substance. ...

Use models to compare the phases of matter and the physical changes they undergo.

PS.PSc.1.2

physical-and-chemical-properties-of-matter

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

The characteristics that enable us to distinguish one substance from another are called properties.

Physical Properties of Matter

A physical property is ...

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Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

Particles in a solid are tightly packed together (fixed shape) and often arranged in a regular pattern; in a liquid, they are close together with no ...

Intermolecular vs Intramolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces (IMF) are electrostatic attractions arising from charge-charge interactions between molecules. The strength of the intermolecular ...

Intermolecular Forces

Atoms and molecules interact through bonds (or forces): intramolecular and intermolecular. The forces are electrostatic as they arise from interactions ...

comparing-intermolecular-forces-melting-point-boiling-point

Comparing Intermolecular Forces: Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Miscibility

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that exist between molecules. They dictate several bulk properties, such as melting points, boiling points, ...

Carry out investigations to compare physical and chemical properties of matter.

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The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

Subatomic Particles

Dalton was only partially correct about the particles that make up matter. All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of three smaller ...

The Bohr Model

Following the work of Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues in the early twentieth century, the picture of atoms consisting of tiny dense nuclei surrounded ...

Emission Spectra

When solids, liquids, or condensed gases are heated sufficiently, they radiate some of the excess energy as light. Photons produced in this manner have a ...

The de Broglie Wavelength

In the macroscopic world, objects that are large enough to be seen by the naked eye follow the rules of classical physics. A billiard ball moving on a ...

The Uncertainty Principle

Werner Heisenberg considered the limits of how accurately one can measure properties of an electron or other microscopic particles. He determined that ...

Use models to interpret the data presented in Bohr diagrams and electron dot diagrams for neutral atoms of elements 1 through 18.

PS.PSc.1.4

Ions and Ionic Charges

In ordinary chemical reactions, the nucleus &mdash; which contains the protons and neutrons of each atom and thus identifies the element &mdash; remains ...

Use models to compare representations of atoms, ions, and isotopes.

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The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties (metallic/nonmetallic character, ionic charge, and reactivity) and arrangement of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

PS.PSc.1.6

Understand types, properties, and structure of matter.

Naming Aniline and Ring Amine Derivatives

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