Name: primary, rechargeable batteries and fuel cells
Uploaded: 2020-09-24T15:06:52.000Z
Duration: 3 min 12 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

9-12

Physical Science

Forces and Interactions

3.2.9-12.M

Batteries and Fuel Cells

배터리는 휴대용 전원으로 사용되는 볼타 전지입니다. 이 배터리는 기본 배터리 또는 비충전식 배터리와 보조 배터리 또는 충전식 배터리로 분류됩니다. 일반적인 기본 배터리는 건전지입니다.

양극으로써의 아연 케이스와 5산화망간과 염화암모늄의 촉촉한 산성 전해액 페이스트에 담근 흑연 음극이 들어 있습니다. 아연은 염화 아연으로 산화되고 망간(IV)산화물은 고체 산화망간(III)으로 환원되어 1.5볼트의 전위를 생성합니다. 배터리를 작동하면 전극이 고갈되어 건전지는 1회용으로만 사용할 수 있습니다.

알칼리성 배터리는 이와 유사하지만 알칼리성 전해질을 사용하여 저장 및 작동 수명을 연장합니다. 납산 배터리는 주로 자동차에 사용되는 보조 배터리입니다. 이 배터리는 일반적으로 6개의 전기 화학 전지가 직렬로 연결되어 총 12 볼트의 전위를 생성합니다.

각 전지에는 납 양극과 황산에 담근 산화 납 음극이 있습니다. 방전 중 산화환원 반응에 의해 두 전극에 황산염 고체 납이 증착되며 이 납은 외부 전원을 사용하여 재충전하는 동안 다시 변환됩니다. 니켈 카드뮴 충전식 배터리는 니켈산소수산화물 음극, 카드뮴 양극 및 수산화 칼륨 전해질을 포함합니다.

배터리 작동 시 양극은 고체 수산화 카드뮴으로 산화되고 음극은 고체 수산화 니켈로 환원되며 이때 1.3볼트의 전지 전위를 생성합니다. 그러나 카드뮴은 독성이 있어 니켈-카드뮴 배터리를 친환경 니켈-금속 수화물 배터리로 대체하게 되었습니다. 이 새 배터리에서 음극은 그대로지만 양극은 수소 흡수성 합금입니다.

양극 반응에 의해 수소에서 물이 형성됩니다. 리튬 이온 배터리는 최신형 보조 배터리입니다. 가벼운 리튬 금속이 들어 있어 높은 에너지 밀도를 가진 휴대용 배터리 제작이 가능하게 합니다.

리튬 이온 배터리에는 리튬산화 흑연 양극과 리튬 전이 금속 산화 음극이 들어 있습니다. 충전되면 전이 금속은 산화되고 리튬 이온은 양극 흑연 층 사이에 포함됩니다. 방전 시 리튬 이온은 양극에서 음극으로 흐르면서 3.7 볼트의 전위를 생성합니다.

끝으로, 연료 전지는 에너지 생성을 위해 지속적으로 외부에서 산화환원 반응물을 공급해야 하는 볼타 전지입니다. 전형적인 수소 연료 전지는 공기의 수소와 산소를 사용하여 전류를 생성하면서 물을 배출합니다. 흑연 전극에는 산화환원 반응을 가속화하기 위한 백금 기반 촉매가 포함되어 있습니다.

배터리 및 연료전지

배터리는 특정 용도의 전력 공급원으로 사용되는 갈바니 전지입니다. 최신 배터리는 손목시계에 전원을 공급하는 작은 버튼 배터리부터 도시 전력망에 백업 에너지를 공급하는 데 사용되는 초대형 배터리에 이르기까지 다양한 애플리케이션을 수용하기 위해 다양한 형태로 존재합니다. 일부 배터리는 일회용으로 설계되어 재충전할 수 없는 반면(1차 전지), 다른 배터리는 외부 전원으로 재충전할 수 있는 편리한 가역 전지 반응을 기반으로 합니다(2차 전지).

일회용(1차) 배터리

건전지는 아연을 용기와 양극(“-” 단자)으로 사용하고 흑연 막대를 음극(“+” 단자)으로 사용하는 일반적인 1차 전지입니다. Zn 캔은 산화 망간(IV), 염화 아연(II), 염화 암모늄 및 물을 함유한 전해질 페이스트로 채워져 있습니다. 흑연 막대를 전해질 페이스트에 담가서 세포를 완성합니다. 자발적인 세포 반응에는 다음이 포함됩니다.

<img alt="Eq1" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_1.png" style="text-align: center; height: 168px;" />

건전지의 전압(전지 전위)은 약 1.5V(E_cell ~ 1.5V)입니다. 건전지는 다양한 크기(예: D, C, AA, AAA)로 제공됩니다. 모든 크기의 건전지는 동일한 구성요소로 구성되어 있으며 동일한 전압을 나타내지만, 더 큰 세포는 더 많은 양의 산화환원 반응물을 포함하므로 그에 따라 더 많은 양의 전하를 전달할 수 있습니다. 다른 갈바니 전지와 마찬가지로, 건전지는 필요한 경우 더 높은 전압 출력을 가진 배터리를 생산하기 위해 직렬로 연결될 수 있습니다.

알카라인 배터리는 건전지와 동일한 산화환원 쌍을 중심으로 설계되었습니다. 이름에서 알 수 있듯이 이러한 유형의 배터리는 알칼리성 전해질(종종 수산화칼륨)을 사용합니다. 반응은 다음과 같습니다

<img alt="Eq2" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_2.png" style="text-align: center; height: 130px;" />

알카라인 배터리는 비슷한 크기의 건전지에 비해 약 3~5배의 에너지를 전달할 수 있습니다(E_cell = +1.43V). 알카라인 배터리는 수산화칼륨이 누출되기 쉽기 때문에 장기간 보관할 경우 기기에서 분리해야 합니다. 일부 알카라인 배터리는 충전이 가능하지만 대부분은 그렇지 않습니다.

충전식(2차) 배터리

니켈-카드뮴 또는 NiCd 배터리는 니켈 도금 음극, 카드뮴 도금 양극 및 수산화칼륨 전극으로 구성됩니다. 분리막에 의해 단락이 방지된 양극판과 음극판을 함께 말아서 케이스에 넣습니다. 이 설계를 통해 NiCd 세포는 비슷한 크기의 알카라인 배터리보다 훨씬 더 많은 전류를 공급할 수 있습니다. 반응은 다음과 같습니다

<img alt="Eq3" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_3.png" style="text-align: center; height: 130px;" />

적절하게 처리하면 NiCd 배터리는 약 1000회(E_cell ~ 1.3V) 충전할 수 있습니다. 카드뮴은 독성 중금속이므로 NiCd 배터리는 절대 파열하거나 소각해서는 안 되며 관련 독성 폐기물 지침에 따라 폐기해야 합니다.

리튬 이온 배터리는 가장 널리 사용되는 충전식 배터리 중 하나이며 많은 휴대용 전자 장치에 사용됩니다. 반응은 다음과 같습니다

<img alt="Eq4" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_4.png" style="text-align: center; height: 130px;" />

세포 반응의 다양한 화학양론은 세포 전압의 변화를 가져오지만 일반적인 조건의 경우 x는 일반적으로 0.5를 넘지 않으며 세포 전압은 약 3.7V(E_cell ~ 3.7)입니다. 리튬 배터리는 많은 양의 전류를 공급할 수 있고, 다른 유형의 유사한 배터리보다 가볍고, 방전 시 거의 일정한 전압을 생성하고, 보관할 때 천천히 충전량이 손실된다는 점에서 널리 사용됩니다.

납축전지 역시 자동차에 흔히 사용되는 이차전지의 일종입니다. 가격이 저렴하고 자동차 스타터 모터에 필요한 고전류를 생산할 수 있습니다. 납산 배터리의 반응은 다음과 같습니다.

<img alt="Eq5" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_5.png" style="text-align: center; height: 160px;" />

각 세포는 2V(E_cell~2V)를 생산하므로 6개의 세포를 직렬로 연결하면 12V 자동차 배터리를 생산할 수 있습니다. 납산 배터리는 무겁고 부식성 액체 전해질인 H_2SO_4(aq)를 포함하고 있지만 높은 전류 밀도 때문에 여전히 배터리로 선택되는 경우가 많습니다. 이러한 배터리에는 상당한 양의 납이 포함되어 있으므로 항상 적절하게 폐기해야 합니다.

연료 전지들

연료전지는 산화제와 함께 지속적으로 전지에 공급되는 전통적인 연소성 연료(대부분 수소 또는 메탄)를 사용하는 갈바니 전지입니다. 전지 내에서 연료와 산화제는 연소될 때와 동일한 산화환원 화학 반응을 거치지만 훨씬 더 효율적인 촉매 전기화학을 통해 진행됩니다. 예를 들어, 일반적인 수소 연료 전지는 백금 기반 촉매가 내장된 흑연 전극을 사용하여 두 가지 반쪽 전지 반응을 가속화합니다.

<img alt="Eq6" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_6.png" style="text-align: center; height: 130px;" />

이러한 유형의 연료전지는 일반적으로 약 1.23V(E_cell ~ 1.23V)의 전압을 생성합니다. 내연기관과 비교했을 때, 동일한 산화환원 반응을 사용하는 연료전지의 에너지 효율은 일반적으로 두 배 이상입니다(엔진의 경우 ~20%~25%, 연료전지의 경우 ~50%~75%). 수소 연료 전지는 일반적으로 확장된 우주 임무에 사용되며 개인용 차량용 프로토타입이 개발되었습니다.

이 문서는 에서 발췌되었습니다 <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/17-5-batteries-and-fuel-cells">Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 17.5: Batteries, and Fuel Cells.</a>

배터리는 특정 응용 분야의 전력원으로 사용되는 갈바닉 셀입니다. 현대 배터리는 다양한 형태로 존재합니다 ...

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primary, rechargeable batteries and fuel cells

Batteries and fuel cells are galvanic cells that supply electrical power for many applications. They range from tiny button batteries in wristwatches to large systems that can provide backup energy to municipal power grids. Some are primary cells, which are single-use and cannot be recharged. Others are secondary cells, which use reversible reactions and can be charged again by an external power source.

A common primary battery is the dry cell. It uses zinc as both the container and the anode, or negative terminal, and a graphite rod as the cathode, or positive terminal. The zinc can holds an electrolyte paste with manganese(IV) oxide, zinc(II) chloride, ammonium chloride, and water. A dry cell has a voltage of about 1.5 V. It comes in sizes such as D, C, AA, and AAA. These sizes use the same parts and the same voltage, but larger cells contain more reactants and can transfer more charge. Dry cells can also be connected in series to increase voltage.

Alkaline batteries use the same redox couples as dry cells, but they use an alkaline electrolyte, often potassium hydroxide. They can deliver about three to five times the energy of a dry cell of similar size and have a cell potential of about 1.43 V. These batteries can leak potassium hydroxide, so they should be removed from devices during long-term storage. Some alkaline batteries are rechargeable, but most are not.

Rechargeable batteries include nickel-cadmium, or NiCd, batteries, lithium-ion batteries, and lead-acid batteries. A NiCd battery has a nickel-plated cathode, a cadmium-plated anode, and a potassium hydroxide electrode. The positive and negative plates are rolled together with a separator to keep them from shorting. This design lets a NiCd cell deliver much more current than a similar-sized alkaline battery. When treated properly, it can be recharged about 1000 times, and its cell potential is about 1.3 V. Cadmium is toxic, so NiCd batteries should not be ruptured or burned and must be disposed of as toxic waste.

Lithium-ion batteries are widely used in portable electronic devices. Their reaction has variable stoichiometry, so the voltage can vary, but under typical conditions the cell potential is about 3.7 V. These batteries are popular because they can provide a large amount of current, are lighter than comparable batteries of other types, and keep a nearly constant voltage as they discharge. They also lose charge slowly during storage. Lead-acid batteries are common in automobiles. They are inexpensive and can deliver the high current needed by starter motors. Each cell produces 2 V, so six cells are connected in series to make a 12-V car battery. These batteries are heavy and contain a caustic sulfuric acid electrolyte, and they also contain a significant amount of lead, so they must be disposed of properly.

A fuel cell is also a galvanic cell, but it uses a fuel that is continuously fed into the cell along with an oxidant. The fuel is often hydrogen or methane. Inside the cell, the same redox chemistry that occurs in combustion is carried out by a catalyzed electrochemical process that is much more efficient. A typical hydrogen fuel cell uses graphite electrodes with platinum-based catalysts to speed the half-cell reactions. These fuel cells usually produce about 1.23 V. Compared with an internal combustion engine, a fuel cell using the same redox reaction is typically more than twice as efficient. Hydrogen fuel cells are used on extended space missions, and prototypes for personal vehicles have been developed.

Primary, Rechargeable Batteries and Fuel Cells

primary-rechargeable-batteries-and-fuel-cells

balancing redox equations

Redox Reactions and Half-Reaction Balancing

Redox reactions involve electron transfer and changes in oxidation number. In electrochemistry, these reactions connect chemical changes with electrical energy. They also power technologies such as industrial metal processing and rechargeable batteries used in electric vehicles. Oxidation number is a way to track how an atom's electronic environment changes compared with the pure element, where the oxidation number is zero. For a simple ionic compound, the oxidation number matches the ion...

electromotive force

Cell Voltage and Electron Flow

Electric current is the flow of electric charge through a conducting medium or a solution. In wires, that charge is carried by electrons. In some solutions, ions can also move and carry charge. When electrons move through a wire, they produce an electric current. This idea connects to redox reactions, where electrons are lost and gained. In the spontaneous reaction between zinc and copper ions, zinc is oxidized to zinc ions. Copper ions are reduced to solid copper. Even so, this direct...

voltaic/galvanic cells

Galvanic Cells and Battery Reactions

Galvanic cells use spontaneous redox reactions to produce electric current. A common example is a disposable AA battery, which powers devices by turning chemical energy into electrical energy. Another example is a copper wire placed in silver nitrate solution, where the solution slowly turns bright blue and a grey solid forms on the wire. In the copper and silver reaction, copper is oxidized and silver ions are reduced. Copper forms cuprous ions, which give the solution its blue color. At the...

standard electrode potentials

Using Electrode Potentials to Predict Reactions

Electrode potentials help predict whether a redox reaction will happen on its own. A redox reaction involves electron transfer. In electrochemistry, the measured value is called cell potential or cell voltage. It shows the energy linked to charge transfer and is measured in volts, where 1 volt equals 1 joule per coulomb. A single half-cell cannot be measured by itself because electron transfer needs both a donor and a receiver. For that reason, scientists measure the difference between two...

cell potential and free energy

Redox Cell Potential, ΔG°, and K

Redox cell potential connects chemical energy, free energy change, and the equilibrium constant in an electrochemical cell. In these reactions, chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. That link helps predict whether a reaction is spontaneous and how far it may proceed. Thermodynamics is the study of how heat and other forms of energy are related. In an electrochemical cell, cell potential can also reflect oxidizing strength or reducing strength. A similar idea appears in acid-base...

the nernst equation

Cell Potential Under Changing Conditions

Cell potential changes when a redox reaction does not run at standard conditions. Standard cell potentials connect with standard free energy change, ΔG°, and the equilibrium constant K, but those relationships only hold at 1 M concentration, 298 K, and 1 atmosphere. A zinc(II) and tin(II) redox cell with E°cell = +0.291 V and ΔG° = −56.2 kJ is spontaneous under those standard conditions. As a cell discharges, the reactant concentration changes and the cell potential steadily drops. Many redox...

concentration cells

Cell Potential from Concentration Differences

Concentration cells are voltaic cells that use two almost identical half-cells. The half-cells use the same electrode and the same half-reaction. They differ only in the concentration of one redox species, so the cell potential depends on that concentration difference. In a concentration cell, the Nernst equation can be used to find the cell potential. For the zinc example shown, the calculated cell potential is positive. A positive cell potential means the overall reaction is spontaneous. <br...

batteries and fuel cells

Batteries and fuel cells are galvanic cells that supply electrical power for many applications. They range from tiny button batteries in wristwatches to large systems that can provide backup energy to municipal power grids. Some are primary cells, which are single-use and cannot be recharged. Others are secondary cells, which use reversible reactions and can be charged again by an external power source. A common primary battery is the dry cell. It uses zinc as both the container and the anode,...

corrosion

Rusting and Metal Protection

Corrosion is the natural breakdown of metals through electrochemical reactions. It can appear as rust on iron, tarnish on silver, or a blue-green patina on copper. In each case, the metal is oxidized. Some corrosion products can protect the surface, while others keep damaging the metal. Rusting is the harmful type of corrosion seen in iron. It happens when iron is exposed to oxygen and water. A galvanic cell forms on the iron surface, and this drives oxidation at the anodic region and...

electrolysis

Electrolysis in Batteries and Metal Production

Electrolysis uses electrical energy to drive a nonspontaneous redox reaction. In a galvanic cell, a spontaneous redox reaction does electrical work on the surroundings by sending electrons through an external circuit. In electrolysis, an external circuit does work on the redox system by applying a voltage large enough to force the reaction in the opposite direction. This process is used in several real-world settings. Recharging a battery is one example, because an outside power source drives...

key terms and concepts

Explore dry cells, alkaline batteries, NiCd, lithium-ion, and lead-acid batteries, plus how hydrogen fuel cells turn fuel into electricity more efficiently.

Primary, Rechargeable Batteries and Fuel Cells | JoVE K12

chemistry

JoVE Core 화학은 간결하고 이해하기 쉬운 애니메이션을 통해 일반 화학 개념을 설명합니다. 또한, 과학자가 직접 고전실험과 연구실험을 진행하는 실사 영상을 제공합니다.

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

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Motion And Stability: Forces And Interactions

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HS+Phy.P4U2.7

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Matter and Its Interactions

9-12.PS.3.4

Next Generation Science Standards

Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

PHYS.6

PHYS.6.D

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South Carolina College and Career Ready Science Standards

Energy

P-PS3-3

Newton's Second Law

Newton&#39;s second law is closely related to his first law of motion. It mathematically gives the cause-and-effect relationship between force and changes ...

Second Law: Motion under Same Force

Newton&#39;s laws can be applied to bodies at rest and bodies in motion. Newton&#39;s first law is applied to bodies in equilibrium, whereas the second ...

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Second Law: Motion under Same Acceleration

Newton&#39;s second law of motion applies to bodies moving under the same acceleration. For example, when a baggage tractor pulls luggage carts, each cart ...

Students who demonstrate understanding can analyze data to support the claim that Newton's second law of motion describes the mathematical relationship among the net force on a macroscopic object, its mass, and its acceleration.  Clarifying Statement: Examples of data could include tables or graphs of position or velocity as a function of time for objects subject to a net unbalanced force, such as a falling object, an object sliding down a ramp, or a moving object being pulled by a constant force.  Assessment Boundry: Assessment is limited to one-dimensional motion and to macroscopic objects moving at non-relativistic speeds.

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Inertial Frames of Reference

Newton&#8217;s first law is usually considered to be a statement about reference frames. It provides a method for identifying a special type of reference ...

Non-inertial Frames of Reference

A reference frame accelerating or decelerating relative to an inertial frame is a non-inertial frame. To help understand this, consider what taking off in ...

Linear Momentum

The term momentum is used in various ways in everyday language, most of which are consistent with the precise scientific definition. Generally, momentum ...

Conservation of Momentum: Introduction

The total momentum of a system consisting of N interacting objects is constant in time or is conserved. A system must meet two requirements for its ...

Conservation of Momentum: Problem Solving

Solving problems using the conservation of momentum requires four basic steps:

	Identify a closed system, where the total mass is constant, and no net ...

Students who demonstrate understanding can use mathematical representations to support the claim that the total momentum of a system of objects is conserved when there is no net force on the system.  Clarifying Statement: Emphasis is on the quantitative conservation of momentum in interactions and the qualitative meaning of this principle.  Assessment Boundry: Assessment is limited to systems of two macroscopic bodies moving in one dimension.

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Students who demonstrate understanding can apply scientific and engineering ideas to design, evaluate and refine a device that minimizes the force on a macroscopic object during a collision. Clarifying Statement: Examples of evaluation and refinement could include determining the success of the device at protecting an object from damage and modifying the design to improve it. Examples of a device could include a football helmet or a parachute. Assessment Boundry: Assessment is limited to qualitative evaluations and/or algebraic manipulations.

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Gravitation

In the years before Newton, a general belief prevailed that different laws governed objects in the sky than objects on Earth. When Kepler wrote down the ...

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Newton's Law of Gravitation

Our everyday observation tells us that all objects close to the Earth naturally tend to fall to the ground. Early philosophers assumed that this downward ...

Electric Charges

From lightning during thunderstorms to electronic devices, the phenomenon of electromagnetism is all around us. The electromagnetic force is one of the ...

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Sources and Properties of Electric Charge

All objects we see around us consist of atoms, which combine to form molecules. The lightest element in the universe is hydrogen, and a hydrogen atom ...

Coulomb's Law

Experiments with electric charges have shown that if two objects each have an electric charge, they exert an electric force on each other. The magnitude ...

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The Principle of Superposition and the Gravitational Field

The principle of superposition applies to gravitational forces of objects that are sufficiently far apart. It states that the net gravitational force on a ...

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Electric Field

Consider two point charges, each exerting Coulomb force on the other. It is possible to describe the Coulomb interaction via an intermediate step by ...

Magnetic Fields

A moving charge or a current creates a magnetic field in the surrounding space, in addition to its electric field. The magnetic field exerts a force on ...

Magnetic Field due to Moving Charges

A stationary charge creates and interacts with the electric field, while a moving charge creates a magnetic field.
Consider a point charge moving with a ...

Electromagnetic Fields

Electric fields generated by static charges, often referred to as electrostatic fields, are characteristically different from electric fields created by ...

Students who demonstrate understanding can use mathematical representations of Newton's Law of Gravitation and Coulomb's Law to describe and predict the gravitational and electrostatic forces between objects. Clarifying Statement: Emphasis is on both quantitative and conceptual descriptions of gravitational and electric fields. Assessment Boundry: Assessment is limited to systems with two objects.

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Energy Transfer in Chemical Reactions

Chemical reactions require sufficient energy to cause the matter to collide with enough precision and force that old chemical bonds can be broken and new ...

A battery is a galvanic cell that is used as a source of electrical power for specific applications. Modern batteries exist in a multitude of forms to ...

Students who demonstrate understanding can plan and conduct an investigation to provide evidence that an electric current can produce a magnetic field and that a changing magnetic field can produce an electric current. Clarifying Statement: N/A Assessment Boundry: Assessment is limited to designing and conducting investigations with provided materials and tools.

Primary, Rechargeable Batteries and Fuel Cells

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