Name: dna and rna: genetic instructions
Uploaded: 2020-09-24T15:06:53.000Z
Duration: 2 min 43 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

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Biology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

BIO1.LS1.3

Nucleic Acids

핵산은 오탄당, 질소 함유 염기 및 인산기로 구성된 분자인 뉴클레오타이드의 중합체입니다. 핵산에는 데옥시리보핵산 과 리보핵산 의 두 가지 유형이 있습니다. 이들의 화학 구조는 포함하는 오탄당과 질소 염기에 따라 다릅니다.

RNA의 오탄당은 탄소-2에 수산기가 붙어있는 리보오스입니다. DNA의 당은 데옥시리보스이며 이는 수소 원자만 가지고 있고 탄소-2에는 산소가 없습니다. 질소 염기는 탄소-1과 탄소-5의 인산염에 결합됩니다.

RNA와 DNA 모두 염기 아데닌, 사이토신 및 구아닌을 포함합니다. 그러나 DNA에는 티민이 있고 RNA에는 우라실이 있습니다. DNA와 RNA에서 구아닌과 시토신은 3개의 수소 결합으로 결합된 상보적 염기쌍을 형성합니다.

아데닌과 티민은 DNA에서 염기쌍을 형성하며 아데닌과 우라실은 RNA에서 두 개의 수소 결합으로 서로 결합되어 있습니다. 다양한 DNA나 RNA 중합 효소가 뉴클레오티드의 중합을 촉매합니다. 포스포디에스테르 결합은 탄소-3에 부착된 수산기와 다음 뉴클레오티드의 탄소-5에 부착된 인산기 사이에 형성됩니다.

이 반응은 자유 인산기가 있는 부착되지 않은 5'말단과 자유 히드록실기가 있는 부착되지 않은 3'말단을 남깁니다. 대응 가닥과 쌍을 이루면 두 분자는 역평행합니다. 즉 한 가닥의 5'끝이 다른 가닥의 3'끝과 쌍을 이룹니다.

가닥은 소수성 효과, 반데르 발스 상호작용 및 질소 염기 사이에 형성되는 특정한 수소 결합을 포함하여 분자간 힘에 의해 유지됩니다. DNA는 서로 감겨진 두 개의 폴리뉴클레오티드 사슬로 구성된 이중 나선입니다. 대조적으로 RNA는 보통 단선 분자로 발견됩니다.

그러나 RNA는 상보적인 RNA 또는 DNA에 결합할 수 있습니다. 또한 가닥 내 상보적 염기 쌍을 나타내어 세포 내에서 뚜렷한 기능을 갖는 다양한 유형의 RNA 이차 구조를 나타낼 수 있습니다.

핵산

핵산은 생명의 연속성을 위해 가장 중요한 거대분자입니다. 이것은 세포의 유전적 청사진을 갖고 있으며 세포의 기능에 대한 지침을 갖고 있습니다.

DNA와 RNA

핵산의 두 가지 주요 유형은 디옥시리보핵산(DNA)과 리보핵산(RNA)입니다. DNA는 단세포 박테리아부터 다세포 포유류에 이르기까지 모든 생명체의 유전 물질입니다. 진핵생물의 핵과 세포소기관, 엽록체, 미토콘드리아에 존재합니다. 원핵생물에서는 DNA가 막질 봉투에 싸여 있지 않습니다.

세포의 전체 유전적 내용이 게놈이며, 게놈에 대한 연구는 게놈학입니다. 원핵생물이 아닌 진핵세포에서는 DNA가 히스톤 단백질과 복합체를 형성하여 진핵세포 염색체의 물질인 염색질을 형성합니다. 염색체에는 수만 개의 유전자가 포함될 수 있습니다. 많은 유전자에는 단백질을 만드는 데 필요한 정보가 들어 있습니다. 다른 유전자는 RNA 산물을 암호화합니다. DNA는 유전자를 "켜거나" 끄는 방식으로 모든 세포 활동을 제어합니다.

다른 유형의 핵산인 RNA는 주로 단백질 합성에 관여합니다. DNA 분자는 결코 핵을 떠나지 않고 대신 중개자를 사용하여 세포의 나머지 부분과 소통합니다. 이 중개자는 메신저 RNA(mRNA)입니다. rRNA, tRNA 및 microRNA-와 같은 다른 유형의 RNA는 단백질 합성 및 조절에 관여합니다.

DNA와 RNA는 뉴클레오티드라고 불리는 단량체로 구성됩니다. 각 뉴클레오티드는 질소 염기, 오탄당(5탄소) 당, 인산기의 세 가지 구성 요소로 구성됩니다. 뉴클레오티드의 각 질소 염기는 하나 이상의 인산염 그룹에 부착된 당 분자에 부착됩니다. 뉴클레오티드의 중요한 구성 요소인 질소 염기는 유기 분자이며 탄소와 질소를 함유하고 있기 때문에 그렇게 명명되었습니다. 이것은 여분의 수소와 결합하여 주변 환경의 수소 이온 농도를 감소시켜 더 염기성으로 만들 가능성이 있는 아미노 그룹을 포함하고 있기 때문에 염기입니다. DNA의 각 뉴클레오티드에는 아데닌(A), 구아닌(G), 시토신(C), 티민(T) 등 네 가지 질소 염기 중 하나가 포함되어 있습니다. 아데닌과 구아닌은 퓨린으로 분류됩니다. 퓨린의 기본 구조는 두 개의 탄소-질소 고리입니다. 시토신, 티민, 우라실은 단일 탄소-질소 고리를 기본 구조로 갖는 피리미딘으로 분류됩니다. 이 기본 탄소-질소 고리 각각에는 서로 다른 작용기가 부착되어 있습니다. 분자 생물학 약어에서 우리는 기호 A, T, G, C 및 U로 질소 염기를 알고 있습니다. DNA에는 A, T, G 및 C가 포함되어 있습니다. 반면 RNA에는 A, U, G 및 C가 포함되어 있습니다.

DNA의 오탄당은 디옥시리보스이고, RNA의 당은 리보스입니다. 당의 차이점은 리보스의 두 번째 탄소에 수산기가 있고 디옥시리보스의 두 번째 탄소에 수소가 있다는 것입니다. 인산염 잔기는 한 당의 5' 탄소의 수산기와 다음 뉴클레오티드의 당의 3' 탄소의 수산기에 부착되어 5'-3' 포스포디에스테르 결합을 형성합니다.

DNA 이중 나선 구조

DNA는 이중 나선 구조를 가지고 있습니다. 설탕과 인산염은 나선의 바깥쪽에 위치하여 DNA의 백본을 형성합니다. 내부에는 질소 염기가 한 쌍의 계단처럼 쌓여 있습니다. 수소 결합은 쌍을 서로 묶습니다. 이중나선의 모든 염기쌍은 다음 염기쌍과 0.34 nm 떨어져 있습니다. 나선의 두 가닥은 반대 방향으로 진행됩니다. 즉, 한 가닥의 5' 탄소 끝이 일치하는 가닥의 3' 탄소 끝을 향하게 됩니다. 특정 유형의 염기쌍만 허용됩니다. A는 T와 짝을 이룰 수 있고, G는 C와 짝을 이룰 수 있습니다. 이것이 보완적인 기본 규칙입니다. 즉, DNA 가닥은 서로 상보적입니다.

RNA

리보핵산(RNA)은 주로 DNA의 지시에 따라 단백질 합성 과정에 관여합니다. RNA는 일반적으로 단일 가닥이며 포스포디에스테르 결합으로 연결된 리보뉴클레오티드로 구성됩니다.

RNA에는 메신저 RNA(mRNA), 리보솜 RNA(rRNA), 전달 RNA(tRNA) 및 마이크로RNA(miRNA)의 네 가지 주요 유형이 있습니다. 첫 번째 mRNA는 세포의 모든 세포 활동을 제어하는 DNA의 메시지를 전달합니다. 세포가 특정 단백질을 필요로 하면 그 단백질의 유전자가 켜지“고”메신저 RNA가 핵에서 합성됩니다. RNA 염기서열은 복제된 DNA의 코딩 서열과 상보적입니다. 세포질에서 mRNA는 리보솜 및 기타 세포 기계와 상호 작용합니다.

mRNA는 코돈이라고 알려진 세 개의 염기 세트로 읽혀집니다. 각 코돈은 단일 아미노산을 암호화합니다. 이런 방식으로 mRNA가 판독되고 단백질 생성물이 만들어집니다. 리보솜 RNA(rRNA)는 mRNA가 결합하는 리보솜의 주요 구성 요소입니다. rRNA는 mRNA와 리보솜의 적절한 정렬을 보장합니다. 리보솜의 rRNA는 또한 효소 활성(펩티딜 트랜스퍼라제)을 가지며 정렬된 두 아미노산 사이의 펩티드 결합 형성을 촉매합니다. 전이 RNA(tRNA)는 네 가지 유형의 RNA 중 가장 작은 것 중 하나이며 일반적으로 길이가 70~90개 뉴클레오티드입니다. 이는 올바른 아미노산을 단백질 합성 부위로 운반합니다. 올바른 아미노산이 폴리펩티드 사슬에 삽입되도록 하는 것은 tRNA와 mRNA 사이의 염기쌍입니다. MicroRNA는 가장 작은 RNA 분자이며 그 역할은 특정 mRNA 메시지의 발현을 방해하여 유전자 발현을 조절하는 것과 관련이 있습니다.

RNA가 단일 가닥임에도 불구하고 대부분의 RNA 유형은 상보적인 서열 사이에 광범위한 분자 내 염기쌍을 보여 기능에 필수적인 예측 가능한 3차원 구조를 만듭니다.

이 문서는 에서 발췌되었습니다 <a href="https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/3-5-nucleic-acids">Openstax, Biology 2e, Chapter 3.5: Nucleic Acids</a>.

핵산은 생명의 연속성을 위해 가장 중요한 거대분자입니다. 그들은 세포의 유전 청사진을 가지고 있으며 세포에 대한 지시를 가지고 있습니다.

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주요 용어 및 개념

dna and rna: genetic instructions

DNA and RNA are the nucleic acids that store genetic information and help direct cell activity. These macromolecules carry the cell’s genetic blueprint and the instructions it uses to function. DNA is the genetic material in all living organisms, from single-celled bacteria to multicellular mammals.

In eukaryotic cells, DNA is found in the nucleus and also in organelles such as chloroplasts and mitochondria. In prokaryotes, DNA is not enclosed in a membrane. The full genetic content of a cell is called the genome, and the study of genomes is genomics. In eukaryotes, DNA binds histone proteins to form chromatin, which makes up eukaryotic chromosomes. A chromosome can contain tens of thousands of genes. Many genes code for proteins, while others code for RNA products. DNA also helps control cell activity by turning genes on or off.

RNA is mainly involved in protein synthesis under the direction of DNA. DNA stays in the nucleus and uses messenger RNA, or mRNA, to communicate with the rest of the cell. Other RNA types, including rRNA, tRNA, and microRNA, help with protein synthesis and its regulation. DNA and RNA are built from monomers called nucleotides.

Each nucleotide has three parts: a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. The nitrogenous bases contain carbon and nitrogen, and they are called bases because an amino group can bind an extra hydrogen and make the local environment more basic. DNA nucleotides use adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. Adenine and guanine are purines, which have two carbon-nitrogen rings. Cytosine, thymine, and uracil are pyrimidines, which have one carbon-nitrogen ring. In shorthand, the bases are written as A, T, G, C, and U. DNA contains A, T, G, and C, while RNA contains A, U, G, and C.

The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, and the sugar in RNA is ribose. Ribose has a hydroxyl group on its second carbon, while deoxyribose has hydrogen there instead. Nucleotides join when a phosphate group connects the 5′ carbon of one sugar to the 3′ carbon of the next sugar. This forms a 5′–3′ phosphodiester linkage.

DNA has a double-helix structure. The sugar-phosphate backbone is on the outside, and the bases are stacked inside like staircase steps. Hydrogen bonds hold the base pairs together. The two strands run in opposite directions, so the 5′ end of one strand faces the 3′ end of the other. Base pairing follows a complementary rule: A pairs with T, and G pairs with C. That is why the two DNA strands are complementary.

RNA is usually single-stranded and is made of ribonucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds. Messenger RNA carries the message copied from DNA. In the nucleus, a gene can be turned on and mRNA is made. The mRNA sequence is complementary to the DNA coding sequence. In the cytoplasm, mRNA binds ribosomes and other cell machinery. The message is read in codons, which are sets of three bases. Each codon codes for one amino acid, and the protein is built from that code.

Ribosomal RNA, or rRNA, is a major part of ribosomes and helps align the mRNA correctly. rRNA also has enzymatic activity called peptidyl transferase, which helps form peptide bonds between aligned amino acids. Transfer RNA, or tRNA, is one of the smallest RNA types, usually 70 to 90 nucleotides long. It brings the correct amino acid to the protein synthesis site, and base pairing between tRNA and mRNA helps place the right amino acid in the growing polypeptide chain. MicroRNAs are the smallest RNA molecules, and they regulate gene expression by interfering with certain mRNA messages. Even though RNA is single-stranded, many RNA types form internal base pairs that give them a predictable three-dimensional shape needed for function.

DNA and RNA: Genetic Instructions

functional groups

Functional Groups in Organic Chemistry

Functional groups in organic chemistry are groups of atoms that give molecules specific properties. When these groups attach to a carbon skeleton, they can change how the molecule behaves. Some functional groups make a molecule hydrophilic, or water-attracting. Others make it hydrophobic, or water-repelling. Functional groups are a key part of organic chemistry and are also found in major biological molecules. They appear in carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Each functional...

structure of lipids

Lipids, Fats, and Cell Membranes

Lipids are nonpolar molecules that do not mix well with water. They are hydrophobic, which means “water fearing,” because they contain mostly nonpolar carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds. In cells, lipids store long-term energy as fats, help insulate plants and animals, and form protective water-repellent layers on feathers and fur. They are also part of cell membranes and serve as building blocks for many hormones. Common lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. A...

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Cell Chemistry: Water and Macromolecules

Cell chemistry includes water, organic molecules, and inorganic ions. These materials shape how cells store energy, build structures, and carry out life processes. Most cellular chemistry and metabolism happen in the watery cytoplasm. Water is a key part of the cell because it has special properties tied to its polarity. In a water molecule, hydrogen and oxygen form polar covalent bonds, so the molecule has no net charge but does have a slightly positive end and a slightly negative end. Oxygen...

dna base pairing

Chargaff’s Rules and DNA Pairing

Chargaff’s rules and DNA base pairing explain how DNA strands match up. In double-stranded DNA, adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T), and guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C). Chargaff also found that A equals T, G equals C, and the total amount of purines (A and G) equals the total amount of pyrimidines (C and T). Watson and Crick later showed why these matches matter. A forms two hydrogen bonds with T, while G forms three hydrogen bonds with C. These pairings keep the DNA double helix a...

chemistry of carbohydrates

Carbohydrates as Energy and Storage Molecules

Carbohydrates are important energy sources in human and animal diets. Grains, fruits, and vegetables are natural sources of carbohydrates. They help provide energy to the body, especially through glucose, a simple sugar found in starch and many staple foods. Carbohydrates are identified by the stoichiometric formula (CH2O)n, where n is the number of carbons in the molecule. This means the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is usually 1:2:1. The name carbohydrate comes from this pattern,...

protein and protein structure

How Protein Shape Controls Function

Proteins are a major class of organic molecules in living systems, and their shape helps determine what they do. They can act as structural, regulatory, contractile, or protective molecules. They also take part in transport, storage, membranes, toxins, and enzymes. All proteins are polymers of amino acids arranged in a linear sequence. A protein’s function depends on its three-dimensional form. For example, an enzyme works when its active site can bind a specific substrate. If local changes or...

amino acids

Amino Acids and Protein Building

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Each amino acid has the same basic structure. A central carbon atom, called the alpha carbon, is bonded to an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a hydrogen atom. Each amino acid also has an R group, or side chain, attached to the central carbon. The R group is different for every amino acid. It helps determine whether an amino acid is acidic, basic, polar, or nonpolar. Scientists call these molecules amino acids because they contain both amino...

peptide bonds

Peptide Bond Formation and Shape

Peptide bonds join amino acids into peptides and polypeptides. They form when the carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amino group of another. This dehydration reaction releases a water molecule and creates a covalent link. As more amino acids are added, the chain becomes a polypeptide. Each polypeptide has a free amino group at one end. This end is the N-terminal, or amino-terminal. The other end has a free carboxyl group. This end is the C-terminal, or carboxyl-terminal. The...

nucleic acids

DNA and RNA are the nucleic acids that store genetic information and help direct cell activity. These macromolecules carry the cell’s genetic blueprint and the instructions it uses to function. DNA is the genetic material in all living organisms, from single-celled bacteria to multicellular mammals. In eukaryotic cells, DNA is found in the nucleus and also in organelles such as chloroplasts and mitochondria. In prokaryotes, DNA is not enclosed in a membrane. The full genetic content of a cell...

dna replication

DNA Copying: Leading and Lagging Strands

DNA replication copies genetic material before a cell divides. Each original DNA strand serves as a template for a new complementary strand. The result is semiconservative replication, which means each new DNA molecule contains one old strand and one new strand. The two daughter cells then receive DNA with the same sequence. Replication starts when helicase separates the two strands of the double helix. This creates a Y-shaped replication fork. Primase then adds short RNA primers that give DNA...

from dna to protein

The Genetic Code and Codons

The genetic code and codons explain how cells turn DNA information into proteins. Genes first direct the sequence of mRNA, and mRNA then directs the sequence of amino acids that make up proteins. Specific proteins and RNAs carry out this decoding. Cells copy DNA into mRNA so the original DNA stays protected while the cell uses the message for protein synthesis. Copying DNA to RNA is relatively simple. One nucleotide is added to the mRNA strand for every nucleotide read on the DNA strand.

polymers

Polymer Chains and How They Form

Polymers are long chains of molecules made from repeating units called monomers. The word polymer comes from the Greek words "poly," meaning many, and "mer," meaning parts. Polymers can be found in nature, such as DNA and proteins, or made synthetically, such as plastics. A polymer’s shape helps define its properties. Some polymers form linear chains, while others are branched or arranged in complex networks. Functional groups on a polymer also affect how it behaves. The repeating units in a...

key terms and concepts

Explore how DNA and RNA store genetic information, pair bases, and guide protein synthesis through mRNA, rRNA, tRNA, and microRNA.

DNA and RNA: Genetic Instructions | JoVE K12

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Size and Structure of Viral Genomes

Viral genomes exhibit remarkable diversity in size, structure, and composition, influencing their replication strategies and interactions with host cells. ...

Compare and contrast existing models, identify patterns, and use structural and functional evidence to analyze the characteristics of life. Engage in argument about the designation of viruses as non-living based on these characteristics.
EXPLANATION: Students begin to develop patterns of living and non-living organisms in kindergarten and build on detailed characteristics of different classifications of living organisms throughout elementary and middle school. Biology 1 discussions introduce viral particles and viral cycles, building on student understanding of living organisms to engage in an argument regarding the classification of a viral particle as either living or non-living.

BIO1.LS1.1

What are Cells?

Cells are the smallest and basic units of life, whether it is a single cell that forms the entire organism, e.g., in a bacterium, or trillions of them, ...

Eukaryotic Compartmentalization

One of the distinguishing features of eukaryotic cells is that they contain membrane-bound organelles, such as the nucleus and mitochondria, that carry ...

Eukaryotic Evolution

The endosymbiont theory is the most widely accepted theory of eukaryotic evolution; however, its progression is still somewhat debated. According to the ...

Animal and Plant Cell Structure

Animal and plant cells not only differ in their structure, function, and mode of nutrition but also in how they reproduce, specialize, and organize into ...

Evaluate comparative models of various cell types with a focus on organic molecules that make up cellular structures.
EXPLANATION: Students explicitly discuss the structure and function of major cellular organelles in seventh grade. Building on this understanding, Biology I students should shift their focus to the different types of cells found in organisms and how the role of each cell type relates to its composition and the prevalence of different organelles within that cell. An example might include the absence (or enucleation) of the nucleus in red blood cells in mammals providing for increased levels of oxygen transport in organisms or the lack of centrioles in most neurons. Varying cell types can include both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell types.

BIO1.LS1.2

Nucleic acids are the most important macromolecules for the continuity of life. They carry the cell&#39;s genetic blueprint and carry instructions for its ...

The DNA Helix

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is the genetic material responsible for passing traits from generation to generation in all organisms and most viruses. DNA ...

DNA Base Pairing

Erwin Chargaff&#x2019;s rules on DNA equivalence paved the way for the discovery of base pairing in DNA. Chargaff&#x2019;s rules state that in a ...

The Central Dogma

The central dogma explains the flow of genetic information from DNA nucleotides to the amino acid sequence of proteins.
RNA is the Missing Link Between ...

DNA Packaging

Overview

Eukaryotes have large genomes compared to prokaryotes. In order to fit their genomes into a cell, eukaryotes must pack their DNA tightly inside ...

Organization of Genes

Overview

The genomes of eukaryotes can be structured in several functional categories. A strand of DNA is comprised of genes and intergenic regions. ...

Karyotyping

Describing the number and physical features of chromosomes can reveal abnormalities that underlie genetic diseases. This description is facilitated by ...

Replication in Prokaryotes

Overview

DNA replication has three main steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. Replication in prokaryotes begins when initiator proteins bind to ...

Replication in Eukaryotes

Overview

In eukaryotic cells, DNA replication is highly conserved and tightly regulated. Multiple linear chromosomes must be duplicated with high ...

Mutations

Overview

Mutations are changes in the sequence of DNA. These changes can occur spontaneously or they can be induced by exposure to environmental factors. ...

Transcription

Overview
Transcription is the process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA sequence by RNA polymerase. It is the first step in producing a protein from a gene ...

Translation

Lesson: Translation
Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following ...

RNA Structure

Overview
The basic structure of RNA consists of a five-carbon sugar and one of four nitrogenous bases. Although most RNA is single-stranded, it can form ...

RNA Stability

Intact DNA strands can be found in fossils, while scientists sometimes struggle to keep RNA intact under laboratory conditions. The structural variations ...

pre-mRNA Processing

In eukaryotic cells, transcripts made by RNA polymerase are modified and processed before exiting the nucleus. Unprocessed RNA is called precursor mRNA or ...

Types of RNA

Overview
Three main types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These RNAs ...

MicroRNAs

siRNA - Small Interfering RNAs

Small interfering RNAs, or siRNAs, are short regulatory RNA molecules that can silence genes post-transcriptionally, as well as the transcriptional ...

piRNA - Piwi-interacting RNAs

PIWI-interacting RNAs, or piRNAs, are the most abundant short non-coding RNAs. More than 20,000 genes have been found in humans that code for piRNAs while ...

CRISPR and crRNAs

Bacteria and archaea are susceptible to viral infections just like eukaryotes; therefore, they have developed a unique adaptive immune system to protect ...

lncRNA - Long Non-coding RNAs

In humans, more than 80% of the genome gets transcribed. However, only around 2% of the genome codes for proteins. The remaining part produces non-coding ...

What are Proteins?

Protein Organization

Protein Folding

Protein Families

Protein families are groups of homologous proteins; that is, they have similarities in amino acid sequences and three-dimensional structures. Protein ...

conservation-of-protein-domains-over-different-proteins

Conservation of Protein Domains Over Different Proteins

Protein domains are small structurally independent units that are part of a single amino acid chain.&#160; Although these domains are often structurally ...

Globular and Fibrous Proteins

Many proteins can be classified into two distinct subtypes - globular or fibrous. These two types differ in their shapes and solubilities.
Globular ...

Intrinsically Disordered Proteins

Intrinsically disordered proteins are a group of proteins that do not fold into specific three-dimensional structures. Their structural flexibility allows ...

Protein Complex Assembly

Proteins can form homomeric complexes with another unit of the same protein or heteromeric complexes with different types.&#160; Most protein complexes ...

Conjugated Proteins

Simple proteins and protein complexes contain only amino acids. In contrast, many other proteins, called conjugated proteins, covalently bond with ...

Allosteric Proteins-ATCase

Binding sites linkages can regulate a protein&#39;s function.&#160; For example, enzyme activity is often regulated through a feedback mechanism where the ...

Amyloid Fibrils

Amyloid fibrils are aggregates of misfolded proteins.&#160; Under most circumstances, misfolded proteins are either refolded by chaperone proteins or ...

Cooperative Allosteric Transitions

Cooperative allosteric transitions can occur in multimeric proteins, where each subunit of the protein has its own ligand-binding site. When a ligand ...

Antibody Structure

Phosphorylation

Ligand Binding Sites

Proteins are dynamic macromolecules that carry out a wide variety of essential processes; however, the activities of most proteins depend on their ...

Protein Kinases and Phosphatases

Proteins undergo chemical modifications that trigger changes in the charge, structure, and conformation of the proteins. Phosphorylation, acetylation, ...

Protein-protein Interfaces

Many proteins form complexes to carry out their functions, making protein-protein interactions (PPIs) essential for an organism&#39;s survival. Most PPIs ...

GTPases and their Regulation

Guanine nucleotide-binding proteins (G-proteins), also known as GTPases, are a superfamily of proteins that regulate many cellular processes, such as cell ...

Conserved Binding Sites

Many proteins&#8217; biological role depends on their interactions with their ligands, small molecules that bind to specific locations on the protein ...

Covalently Linked Protein Regulators

Proteins can undergo many types of post-translational modifications, often in response to changes in their environment. These modifications play an ...

the-equilibrium-binding-constant-and-binding-strength

The Equilibrium Binding Constant and Binding Strength

The equilibrium binding constant (Kb) quantifies the strength of a protein-ligand interaction. Kb can be calculated as follows when the reaction is at ...

protein-complexes-with-interchangeable-parts

Protein Complexes with Interchangeable Parts

Groups of proteins may form a complex where each protein in this complex has a different role in the overall execution of the complex&#8217;s function. ...

Cofactors and Coenzymes

Mechanical Protein Functions

Proteins perform many mechanical functions in a cell. These proteins can be classified into two general categories- proteins that generate mechanical ...

Allosteric Regulation

Structural Protein Function

Structural proteins are a category of proteins responsible for functions ranging from cell shape and movement to providing support to major structures ...

Ligand Binding and Linkage

Allosteric proteins have more than one ligand binding site; the binding of a ligand to any of these sites influences the binding of ligands to the other ...

Protein Networks

An organism can have thousands of different proteins, and these proteins must cooperate to ensure the health of an organism. Proteins bind to other ...

Integrate evidence to develop a structural model of a DNA molecule. Using the model, develop and communicate an explanation for how DNA serves as a template for self-replication and encodes biological information.
EXPLANATION: Discussions of DNA in earlier grades have been limited to discussions of genes and the role of genes in the appearance and activities of an organism. Biology 1 represents a student's introduction to a molecular model of a DNA as well as the organization of DNA into genes and genes subsequently into chromosomes. Students should address interactions between genes in proteins which regulate both the shape and reproduction of DNA molecules. It is important to note that not all segments of DNA are transcribed for proteins. Portions of DNA are involved in regulating the expression of genes or affect the structure of the chromosomes (replication origin, centromeres, and telomeres).

What is the Cell Cycle?

The cell cycle refers to the sequence of events occurring throughout a typical cell&#8217;s life. In eukaryotic cells, the somatic cell cycle has two ...

Interphase

The cell cycle occurs over approximately 24 hours (in a typical human cell) and in two distinct stages: interphase, which includes three phases of the ...

The Cell Cycle Control System

Positive Regulator Molecules

Inhibition of CDK Activity

S-Cdk Initiates DNA Replication

M-Cdk Drives Transition Into Mitosis

Mitogens and the Cell Cycle

Replicative Cell Senescence

Abnormal Proliferation

cells-coordinate-growth-and-proliferation

Cells Coordinate Growth and Proliferation

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

In eukaryotes, the cell division cycle is divided into distinct, coordinated cellular processes that include cell growth, DNA replication/chromosome ...

Chromosome Duplication

Cohesins

Create a model for the major events of the eukaryotic cell cycle, including mitosis. Compare and contrast the rates of cell division in various eukaryotic cell types in multicellular organisms.
EXPLANATION: Students first discuss mitosis in seventh grade, specifically focusing on the role of mitosis in creating genetically identical daughter cells. Biology 1 discussions should connect a student's understanding of gene expression and protein function with the process of mitosis to explore the differentiation of cell types from otherwise identical daughter cells. Discussions should also include varying rates of mitotic division and the relationship between these rates of division and the function of specific cell types within eukaryotic organisms. Examples may include the extremely limited use of mitosis by neurons due to their interconnectedness within neural networks or the rapid rates of mitosis with growing root tips.

BIO1.LS1.6

DNA and RNA: Genetic Instructions

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