Name: punnett squares for predicting traits
Uploaded: 2019-03-11T09:21:16.000Z
Duration: 1 min
Channel: JoVE

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Life Science

LS.10

LS.10.c

Punnett Squares

Kwadrat Punneta, prosty diagram nazwany na cześć jego wynalazcy, jest graficznym sposobem przewidywania prawdopodobieństwa, że potomstwo może odziedziczyć pojedynczą cechę genu, taką jak nietolerancja laktozy, biorąc pod uwagę genotypy rodzicielskie.

Korzystając z tej siatki, wkłady genetyczne jednego z rodziców, który w tym przypadku jest homozygotyczny recesywny, z allelami oznaczonymi jako dwie małe litery L, są umieszczane na górze. Te z drugiej, heterozygotyczne z mieszanymi allelami, reprezentowane przez dominującą wielką literę L wraz z recesywną małą literą L, są zapisane po lewej stronie.

Połączenie tych nagłówków wierszy i kolumn w pudełkach daje dwa możliwe genotypy i oba fenotypy dla dziecka. 50% szans na bycie heterozygotą i zdolność do trawienia laktozy. I 50% szans na bycie homozygotą recesywną i nietolerancją laktozy.

Edwards, A. W. F. "Reginald Crundall Punnett: Pierwszy profesor genetyki Arthura Balfoura, Cambridge, 1912." Genetyka 192, nr 1 (1 września 2012): 3. [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.112.143552" target="__blank">Źródło</a>]

Reid, James B. i John J. Ross. "Geny Mendla: w kierunku pełnej charakterystyki molekularnej". Genetyka 189, nr 1 (1 września 2011): 3. [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.111.132118" target="__blank">Źródło</a>]

szachownice punnetta

<h4>Przegląd</h4>

Szachownica Punnetta przedstawia możliwe genotypy, które potomstwo może odziedziczyć od dwóch genotypów rodzicielskich. Jeśli znany jest wzór dziedziczenia cechy (np. dominujący lub recesywny), szachownice Punnetta można również zastosować do określenia prawdopodobieństwa odziedziczenia fenotypu. Szachownice Punnetta mają zastosowanie w sytuacjach, gdy dziedziczenie cech jest określone przez pojedynczy locus genu, a cechy są dziedziczone niezależnie. Nie są jednak w stanie przewidzieć prawdopodobieństwa cech w przypadku bardziej złożonych scenariuszy dziedziczenia genetycznego.

<h4>Szachownice Punnetta pokazują prawdopodobieństwo odziedziczenia jednej lub więcej cech</h4>

Szachownice Punnetta to wizualne reprezentacje przedstawiające możliwe genotypy potomstwa powstałe w wyniku skrzyżowania dwóch genotypów rodzicielskich. Mogą przedstawiać dziedziczenie jednego lub wielu fenotypów lub cech, chociaż inne narzędzia są bardziej odpowiednie do badania dziedziczenia więcej niż dwóch cech.

Szachopwnic Punnetta można użyć do określenia prawdopodobieństwa, że potomstwo odziedziczy określony genotyp lub parę alleli powodujących określoną cechę (tj. fenotyp lub cechę), pod warunkiem, że fenotyp jest spowodowany pojedynczym locus genu i jest niezależnie sortowany podczas mejozy. Innymi słowy, szachownice Punnetta są przydatne do określania prawdopodobieństw dziedziczenia w scenariuszach, w których prawdopodobieństwo odziedziczenia jednej cechy nie wpływa na prawdopodobieństwo odziedziczenia innej. Chociaż istnieje wiele wyjątków od tych założeń (np. cechy kodowane przez sąsiednie geny na tym samym chromosomie), kwalifikatory te są prawdziwe w przypadku wielu cech roślin i zwierząt.

<h4>Eksperymenty Mendla zainspirowały powstanie Szachownic Punnetta</h4>

Szachownice Punnetta zostały stworzone na początku XX wieku przez Reginalda Punnetta, kilkadziesiąt lat po tym, jak przełomowe eksperymenty Gregora Mendla z roślinami grochu ujawniły podstawowe prawa dziedziczenia. Obecnie szachownice Punnetta są często używane do zilustrowania zasad leżących u podstaw eksperymentów Mendla.

Mendel badał dziedziczenie kilku cech roślin grochu, w tym kształtu i koloru grochu i strąków, koloru i położenia kwiatów oraz wielkości rośliny. Mendel zbadał także cechy dziedziczne każdej cechy. Na przykład fioletowy i biały są możliwymi cechami charakterystycznymi dla koloru kwiatów. U grochu fioletowe i białe kwiaty są determinowane przez różne warianty genów, czyli allele, w locus genu koloru kwiatów.

<h4>Szachownice Punnetta to siatki porządkujące informację genetyczną</h4>

Każde pole w kwadracie Punnetta reprezentuje możliwe zdarzenie zapłodnienia lub genotyp potomstwa, powstały w wyniku dwóch gamet rodzicielskich. Szachownice Punnetta są zwykle ułożone w konfiguracjach 2x2 lub 4x4, aby zwizualizować dziedziczenie odpowiednio jednej lub dwóch cech.

Jeśli chodzi o nazewnictwo, allele są oznaczone pierwszą literą cechy spowodowanej przez allel dominujący. Na przykład, ponieważ żółty jest dominującą cechą koloru grochu, allele kodujące kolor grochu są oznaczone kursywą literą‘y—. Wielkie i małe litery oznaczają odpowiednio allele dominujące i recesywne. Zatem Y reprezentuje dominujący żółty allel, a y oznacza recesywny allel zielony.

Aby utworzyć sachownicę Punnetta 2x2 badającą jedną cechę, nad diagramem wyszczególniony jest jeden genotyp rodzicielski, z jednym allelem w każdej kolumnie. Drugi genotyp rodzicielski jest wyświetlany pionowo po lewej stronie diagramu, z jednym allelem w każdym rzędzie. Każde kwadrat Punnetta zawiera dwa allele rodzicielskie (po jednym od każdego rodzica) odpowiadające rzędowi i kolumnie pudełka, reprezentujące jeden możliwy wynik zapłodnienia. Pełną zawartość szachownicy Punnetta można wykorzystać do określenia prawdopodobieństwa odziedziczenia przez potomstwo określonej cechy.

<h4>Szachownice Punnetta to narzędzia informacyjne dla doradców genetycznych i hodowców</h4>

Pomimo tego, że powstały ponad 100 lat temu, szachownice Punnetta nadal mają kilka istotnych zastosowań. W przypadku par korzystających z poradnictwa genetycznego szachownice Punnetta mogą pomóc w określeniu ryzyka choroby dziedzicznej u ich dziecka. Na przykład, jeśli jedno z rodziców ma mukowiscydozę (dwa recesywne allele przyczynowe), a drugie nie ma tej choroby ani nie jest jej nosicielem, ich dziecko będzie nosicielem (tj. będzie miało jeden allel przyczynowy), ale nie będzie u niego ryzyko mukowiscydozy. Szachownice Punnetta mogą również pomóc hodowcom zwierząt i roślin w wyborze organizmów o określonych cechach do dalszej hodowli.

Chociaż szachownice Punnetta są przydatne w wielu kontekstach, nie mogą dokładnie przedstawić złożonego dziedziczenia genetycznego. Na przykład cechy kodowane przez sąsiednie geny na tym samym chromosomie są często dziedziczone razem od jednego z rodziców, co jest zjawiskiem zwanym powiązaniem. Cechy te nie są niezależnie dobrane, więc szachownica Punnetta nie może dokładnie przewidzieć ich wzorców dziedziczenia. Niektóre cechy, takie jak wzrost, są nieodpowiednie dla szachownic Punnetta, ponieważ są zdeterminowane przez kilka genów i wpływają na nie warunki środowiskowe (np. dieta). Szachownice Punnetta są również nieskuteczne w przewidywaniu dziedziczności cech nabytych tylko od jednego rodzica.

Szachownice Punnetta

Przegląd

Kwadrat Punneta pokazuje możliwe genotypy, które potomstwo może odziedziczyć z dwóch genotypów rodzicielskich. Jeśli wzorzec dziedziczenia cechy ...

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punnett squares for predicting traits

Punnett squares help predict which traits offspring may inherit from two parents. They show possible genotypes, which are pairs of alleles, and can also show the chance of a phenotype, or visible trait, when the inheritance pattern is known. These grids work best for traits controlled by a single gene locus and passed on independently during meiosis.

Punnett squares were developed in the early 1900s by Reginald Punnett. His work came after Gregor Mendel’s pea plant experiments revealed the basic laws of inheritance. Mendel studied traits such as pea and pod shape and color, flower color and position, and plant size. For flower color, purple and white are different traits controlled by different alleles at the same gene locus.

A Punnett square organizes genetic information in a grid. Each box represents one possible fertilization event, or one possible offspring genotype, from two parental gametes. These diagrams are often shown as 2x2 squares for one trait or 4x4 squares for two traits. Alleles are usually written with the first letter of the dominant trait. For pea color, Y stands for the dominant yellow allele, and y stands for the recessive green allele.

To build a 2x2 Punnett square, one parent’s genotype is placed across the top and the other parent’s genotype is placed down the side. One allele goes above each column, and one allele goes next to each row. The boxes then combine one allele from each parent. The full square shows the chances of each genotype and helps predict the trait an offspring may show.

Punnett squares still matter in genetics, counseling, and breeding. Genetic counselors can use them to estimate a child’s risk for inherited disease. For example, if one parent has cystic fibrosis and the other neither has nor carries it, the child will be a carrier but will not be at risk for cystic fibrosis. Breeders also use Punnett squares to choose organisms with useful traits for future breeding.

These grids do have limits. They do not work well for complex inheritance patterns, such as linked genes on the same chromosome, because those genes are not independently assorted. They are also not a good fit for traits like height, which can depend on several genes and environmental factors such as diet. Punnett squares are also not useful for traits acquired from only one parent.

Punnett Squares for Predicting Traits

genetic lingo

Genotype, Phenotype, and Inheritance

Genotype, phenotype, and inheritance help explain how traits and disease risk are passed from parents to offspring. In diploid organisms, including humans, most other animals, and many plants, somatic cells carry a duplicate set of chromosomes. These chromosome pairs are homologous, with similar length, centromere position, and gene locations. Diploid organisms inherit two versions of each gene, one from each parent. These versions are called alleles, and they sit at the same relative locus,...

punnett squares

Punnett squares help predict which traits offspring may inherit from two parents. They show possible genotypes, which are pairs of alleles, and can also show the chance of a phenotype, or visible trait, when the inheritance pattern is known. These grids work best for traits controlled by a single gene locus and passed on independently during meiosis. Punnett squares were developed in the early 1900s by Reginald Punnett. His work came after Gregor Mendel’s pea plant experiments revealed the...

monohybrid crosses

Mendel’s Pea Plant Inheritance Ratios

Gregor Mendel used pea plants to study how traits are passed from parents to offspring. His breeding experiments in the 1850s and 1860s showed that inheritance follows clear patterns. He crossed true-breeding plants that differed in one trait and found that dominant traits can hide recessive traits. Mendel focused on seven pea plant traits, and each trait had two forms controlled by a single gene locus. He noticed that true-breeding plants always produced offspring with the same phenotype, or...

dihybrid crosses

Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment

Mendel’s law of independent assortment explains how two traits can be inherited separately. Gregor Mendel tested this idea with pea plants that differed in two characteristics, such as pea color and pea shape. He used true-breeding parents that were homozygous for both traits but showed different phenotypes. In one example, Mendel crossed round, yellow peas with wrinkled, green peas. The parental generation had RRYY and rryy genotypes. Their first-generation offspring were all dihybrids,...

law of segregation

Mendel’s Pea Cross Ratios

Mendel’s pea plant crosses show how traits can disappear in one generation and return in the next. When he crossed plants, one parental trait sometimes seemed to vanish in the F1 generation and reappear in the F2 generation. Mendel used this pattern to explain why some traits are dominant and others are recessive. He proposed that traits are controlled by alleles, which are different versions of a gene. An organism inherits two copies of each gene, one from each parent. In his model, a...

law of independent assortment

Mendel’s Dihybrid Cross and Trait Ratios

Mendel’s dihybrid cross shows how two traits are inherited at the same time. A dihybrid cross is a cross in which both parents are homozygous for two distinct traits, and the F1 generation is heterozygous for both traits. Mendel used pea plants with round yellow peas and wrinkled green peas as an example. One parent had genotype YYRR, and the other had genotype yyrr. In the F1 generation, every plant showed the dominant traits, so the plants were YyRr and had yellow, round peas. The F2...

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test cross

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pedigree analysis

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multiple allele traits

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epistasis

Gene Masking in Rabbit Fur Color

Epistasis describes how one gene can mask or change the effect of another gene. In high school genetics, this helps explain why many traits do not follow a simple single-gene pattern. Instead, alleles at different locations can work together to shape the final phenotype. Mendel studied seven unrelated pea traits, but most traits involve multiple gene interactions. Epistasis often happens when one gene interferes with the expression of another gene. It can also occur when genes are part of the...

nature and nurture

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pleiotropy

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Pleiotropy is when one gene affects more than one trait. The SOX10 gene is a clear example because it can influence pigmentation, hearing, and intestinal movement. These traits may seem unrelated, but they can all be linked to the same gene change. In humans, a deleted region in SOX10 can cause Waardenburg Syndrome Type 4, or WS4. WS4 is an autosomal recessive disorder, which means a person usually inherits two altered copies of the gene. Common signs include a white forelock,...

sex-linked disorders

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X- and Y-linked disorders come from mutations in genes on the sex chromosomes. These genes, like those on autosomes, are needed for normal body function. When a mutation causes a biological problem, the condition is called sex-linked. Y-linked disorders come from changes in the Y chromosome. They affect only males, because only males carry a Y chromosome. Mutations in this small chromosome can affect male sexual function and secondary sex characteristics. One example is Y-chromosome...

x-linked traits

X-Linked Inheritance in Families

X-linked inheritance explains how traits on the X chromosome are passed through families. In most mammalian species, females have two X sex chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y. A mutation on one X chromosome may be masked in females by a normal allele on the other X. In males, that same mutation is more likely to show because there is no second normal X to balance it. Traits caused by changes on the X chromosome are called X-linked traits. Color blindness is a well-studied example.

x-inactivation

Barr Bodies and X-Chromosome Balance

Barr bodies and X-chromosome balance help explain how female mammalian cells control gene activity from the X chromosome. The human X chromosome carries far more genes than the Y chromosome. Because males usually have one X chromosome and females have two, females would make twice as many of some proteins without a control system. To prevent that imbalance, female mammalian cells inactivate nearly all the genes on one X chromosome during early embryonic development. The inactive X condenses...

non-nuclear inheritance

Maternal DNA in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

Maternal DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts explains how some genes are inherited outside the nucleus. Most DNA is in the nucleus, but mitochondria and chloroplasts in the cell cytoplasm also carry their own DNA and can copy it independently of nuclear DNA. Mitochondria are found in both plant and animal cells. They are called the powerhouses of eukaryotic cells because they break down glucose to make energy for cellular activity. Mitochondrial DNA has about 37 genes, and many help with...

chromosomal theory of inheritance

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Genes map to chromosomes, and this idea explains how Mendel’s inheritance patterns work. Gregor Mendel published his pea plant breeding results in 1866. He showed that physical traits follow predictable patterns. At the time, scientists did not yet know that genes existed. Mendel used the word "factors" for the hereditary units he studied. The details behind Mendel’s laws of segregation and independent assortment were still unknown for many years. In the late 1800s, better microscopes and...

key terms and concepts

Learn how Punnett squares predict offspring genotypes and traits, from Mendel’s pea plants to genetic counseling, breeding, and simple inheritance patterns.

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In the 1850s and 1860s, Gregor Mendel investigated inheritance by performing monohybrid crosses in pea plants. He crossed two plants that were ...

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The student will investigate and understand that organisms reproduce and transmit genetic information to new generations. Key ideas include Punnett squares are mathematical models used to predict the probability of traits in offspring.

Punnett Squares for Predicting Traits

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