Name: dna and rna: genetic instructions
Uploaded: 2020-09-24T15:06:53.000Z
Duration: 2 min 43 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Tennessee Academic Standards

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Biology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

BIO1.LS1.3

Nucleic Acids

Kwasy nukleinowe to polimery nukleotydów – cząsteczek składających się z cukru pentozowego, zasady zawierającej azot i grupy fosforanowej.
Istnieją dwa rodzaje kwasów nukleinowych: kwas dezoksyrybonukleinowy DNA i kwas rybonukleinowy RNA. 
Ich struktura chemiczna różni się w zależności od zawartych w nich pentozowych zasad cukrowych i azotowych.
Cukier pentozowy w RNA to ryboza, która ma grupę hydroksylową przyłączoną do węgla-2. Cukier w DNA to dezoksyryboza, która ma tylko atom wodoru, ale nie ma tlenu przy węglu-2.
Baza azotowa jest związana z węglem-1, a fosforan z węglem-5. Zarówno RNA, jak i DNA zawierają zasady adeniny, cytozyny i guaniny; ale DNA ma tyminę, podczas gdy RNA ma uracyl. 
W DNA i RNA guanina i cytozyna tworzą komplementarne pary zasad, połączone trzema wiązaniami wodorowymi. Adenina i tymina tworzą pary zasad w DNA, podczas gdy adenina i uracyl łączą się w pary w RNA, oba połączone ze sobą dwoma wiązaniami wodorowymi.
Różne enzymy polimerazy DNA lub RNA katalizują polimeryzację nukleotydów.
Wiązanie fosfodiestrowe powstaje między grupą hydroksylową przyłączoną do węgla-3 a grupą fosforanową przyłączoną do węgla-5 następnego nukleotydu. Ta reakcja pozostawia nieprzyłączony koniec 5' z wolną grupą fosforanową i nieprzyłączony koniec 3' z wolną grupą hydroksylową.
W połączeniu z komplementarną nicią dwie cząsteczki są antyrównoległe, co oznacza, że koniec 5' jednej nici łączy się z końcem 3' drugiej.
Pasma są utrzymywane razem przez siły międzycząsteczkowe, w tym efekty hydrofobowe, oddziaływania van der Waalsa i specyficzne wiązania wodorowe, które tworzą się między zasadami azotowymi. DNA to podwójna helisa złożona z dwóch łańcuchów polinukleotydowych nawiniętych wokół siebie. W przeciwieństwie do tego, RNA jest często znajdowane jako cząsteczka jednoniciowa.
Jednak RNA może wiązać się z komplementarnym RNA lub DNA. Może również wykazywać wewnątrzniciowe komplementarne parowanie zasad, co skutkuje różnymi typami drugorzędowych struktur RNA, które pełnią różne funkcje w komórce.

kwasy nukleinowe

Kwasy nukleinowe są makrocząsteczkami najważniejszymi dla ciągłości życia. Niosą plan genetyczny komórki i instrukcje jej funkcjonowania.

DNA i RNA

Dwa główne typy kwasów nukleinowych to kwas dezoksyrybonukleinowy (DNA) i kwas rybonukleinowy (RNA). DNA jest materiałem genetycznym wszystkich żywych organizmów, od jednokomórkowych bakterii po wielokomórkowe ssaki. Znajduje się w jądrze eukariontów oraz w organellach, chloroplastach i mitochondriach. U prokariotów DNA nie jest zamknięte w błoniastej otoczce.

Cała zawartość genetyczna komórki to jej genom, a badanie genomów to genomika. W komórkach eukariotycznych, ale nie u prokariotów, DNA tworzy kompleks z białkami histonowymi, tworząc chromatynę, substancję chromosomów eukariotycznych. Chromosom może zawierać dziesiątki tysięcy genów. Wiele genów zawiera informację niezbędną do wytworzenia białek. Inne geny kodują produkty RNA. DNA kontroluje całą aktywność komórkową, włączając i wyłączając geny.

Drugi rodzaj kwasu nukleinowego, RNA, bierze głównie udział w syntezie białek. Cząsteczki DNA nigdy nie opuszczają jądra, zamiast tego wykorzystują pośrednika do komunikacji z resztą komórki. Tym pośrednikiem jest informacyjny RNA (mRNA). Inne typy RNA — takie jak rRNA, tRNA i mikroRNA — biorą udział w syntezie białek i jej regulacji.

DNA i RNA składają się z monomerów zwanych nukleotydami. Każdy nukleotyd składa się z trzech składników: zasady azotowej, cukru pentozowego (pięciowęglowego) i grupy fosforanowej. Każda zasada azotowa w nukleotydzie jest przyłączona do cząsteczki cukru, która jest przyłączona do jednej lub więcej grup fosforanowych. Zasady azotowe, ważne składniki nukleotydów, są cząsteczkami organicznymi i zostały tak nazwane, ponieważ zawierają węgiel i azot. Są zasadami, ponieważ zawierają grupę aminową, która ma potencjał wiązania dodatkowego wodoru, a tym samym zmniejszania stężenia jonów wodorowych w swoim otoczeniu, czyniąc go bardziej zasadowym. Każdy nukleotyd w DNA zawiera jedną z czterech możliwych zasad azotowych: adeninę (A), guaninę (G), cytozynę (C) i tyminę (T). Adenina i guanina zaliczane są do puryn. Podstawową strukturą puryn są dwa pierścienie węgiel-azot. Cytozyna, tymina i uracyl są klasyfikowane jako pirymidyny, których podstawową strukturą jest pojedynczy pierścień węgiel-azot. Do każdego z tych podstawowych pierścieni węgiel-azot przyłączone są różne grupy funkcyjne. W skrócie biologii molekularnej zasady azotowe znamy po ich symbolach A, T, G, C i U. DNA zawiera A, T, G i C; podczas gdy RNA zawiera A, U, G i C.

Cukier pentozowy w DNA to deoksyryboza, a w RNA cukier to ryboza. Różnica między cukrami polega na obecności grupy hydroksylowej na drugim węglu rybozy i wodoru na drugim węglu dezoksyrybozy. Reszta fosforanowa przyłącza się do grupy hydroksylowej węgla 5′ jednego cukru i grupy hydroksylowej węgla 3′ cukru następnego nukleotydu, tworząc wiązanie fosfodiestrowe 5′–3′.

Struktura podwójnej helisy DNA

DNA ma strukturę podwójnej helisy. Cukier i fosforany znajdują się na zewnątrz helisy, tworząc szkielet DNA. Zasady azotowe ułożone są we wnętrzu niczym para stopni schodów. Wiązania wodorowe łączą pary ze sobą. Każda para zasad w podwójnej helisie jest oddalona od następnej pary zasad o 0,34 nm. Dwie nici helisy biegną w przeciwnych kierunkach, co oznacza, że koniec węglowy 5′ jednej nici będzie skierowany w stronę końca węglowego 3′ pasującej nici. Dozwolone są tylko niektóre typy par zasad – A może łączyć się z T, a G może łączyć się z C. Jest to podstawowa zasada komplementarności. Innymi słowy, nici DNA są względem siebie komplementarne.

RNA

Kwas rybonukleinowy, czyli RNA, bierze udział głównie w procesie syntezy białek pod kierunkiem DNA. RNA jest zwykle jednoniciowy i składa się z rybonukleotydów połączonych wiązaniami fosfodiestrowymi.

Istnieją cztery główne typy RNA: informacyjny RNA (mRNA), rybosomalny RNA (rRNA), transferowy RNA (tRNA) i mikroRNA (miRNA). Pierwszy, mRNA, przenosi wiadomość z DNA, które kontroluje całą aktywność komórkową w komórce. Jeśli komórka potrzebuje określonego białka, odpowiadający za nią gen zostaje „włączony” i w jądrze następuje synteza informacyjnego RNA. Sekwencja zasad RNA jest komplementarna do sekwencji kodującej DNA, z której została skopiowana. W cytoplazmie mRNA oddziałuje z rybosomami i innymi mechanizmami komórkowymi.

mRNA odczytuje się w zestawach trzech zasad zwanych kodonami. Każdy kodon koduje pojedynczy aminokwas. W ten sposób odczytywany jest mRNA i powstaje produkt białkowy. Rybosomalny RNA (rRNA) jest głównym składnikiem rybosomów, z którymi wiąże się mRNA. rRNA zapewnia prawidłowe ułożenie mRNA i rybosomów. rRNA rybosomu ma również aktywność enzymatyczną (transferaza peptydylowa) i katalizuje tworzenie wiązań peptydowych pomiędzy dwoma ustawionymi aminokwasami. Transferowy RNA (tRNA) to jeden z najmniejszych z czterech typów RNA, zwykle o długości 70–90 nukleotydów. Przenosi właściwy aminokwas do miejsca syntezy białka. Jest to para zasad pomiędzy tRNA i mRNA, która pozwala właściwemu aminokwasowi wstawić się do łańcucha polipeptydowego. MikroRNA to najmniejsze cząsteczki RNA, a ich rola polega na regulowaniu ekspresji genów poprzez zakłócanie ekspresji niektórych komunikatów mRNA.

Mimo że RNA jest jednoniciowy, większość typów RNA wykazuje rozległe wewnątrzcząsteczkowe pary zasad pomiędzy komplementarnymi sekwencjami, tworząc przewidywalną trójwymiarową strukturę niezbędną dla ich funkcji.

Ten tekst jest adaptacją <a href="https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/3-5-nucleic-acids">Openstax, Biology 2e, Chapter 3.5: Nucleic Acids</a>

Kwasy nukleinowe

Kwasy nukleinowe są najważniejszymi makrocząsteczkami dla ciągłości życia. Przenoszą one plan genetyczny komórki i zawierają instrukcje dotyczące jej ...

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dna and rna: genetic instructions

DNA and RNA are the nucleic acids that store genetic information and help direct cell activity. These macromolecules carry the cell’s genetic blueprint and the instructions it uses to function. DNA is the genetic material in all living organisms, from single-celled bacteria to multicellular mammals.

In eukaryotic cells, DNA is found in the nucleus and also in organelles such as chloroplasts and mitochondria. In prokaryotes, DNA is not enclosed in a membrane. The full genetic content of a cell is called the genome, and the study of genomes is genomics. In eukaryotes, DNA binds histone proteins to form chromatin, which makes up eukaryotic chromosomes. A chromosome can contain tens of thousands of genes. Many genes code for proteins, while others code for RNA products. DNA also helps control cell activity by turning genes on or off.

RNA is mainly involved in protein synthesis under the direction of DNA. DNA stays in the nucleus and uses messenger RNA, or mRNA, to communicate with the rest of the cell. Other RNA types, including rRNA, tRNA, and microRNA, help with protein synthesis and its regulation. DNA and RNA are built from monomers called nucleotides.

Each nucleotide has three parts: a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. The nitrogenous bases contain carbon and nitrogen, and they are called bases because an amino group can bind an extra hydrogen and make the local environment more basic. DNA nucleotides use adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. Adenine and guanine are purines, which have two carbon-nitrogen rings. Cytosine, thymine, and uracil are pyrimidines, which have one carbon-nitrogen ring. In shorthand, the bases are written as A, T, G, C, and U. DNA contains A, T, G, and C, while RNA contains A, U, G, and C.

The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, and the sugar in RNA is ribose. Ribose has a hydroxyl group on its second carbon, while deoxyribose has hydrogen there instead. Nucleotides join when a phosphate group connects the 5′ carbon of one sugar to the 3′ carbon of the next sugar. This forms a 5′–3′ phosphodiester linkage.

DNA has a double-helix structure. The sugar-phosphate backbone is on the outside, and the bases are stacked inside like staircase steps. Hydrogen bonds hold the base pairs together. The two strands run in opposite directions, so the 5′ end of one strand faces the 3′ end of the other. Base pairing follows a complementary rule: A pairs with T, and G pairs with C. That is why the two DNA strands are complementary.

RNA is usually single-stranded and is made of ribonucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds. Messenger RNA carries the message copied from DNA. In the nucleus, a gene can be turned on and mRNA is made. The mRNA sequence is complementary to the DNA coding sequence. In the cytoplasm, mRNA binds ribosomes and other cell machinery. The message is read in codons, which are sets of three bases. Each codon codes for one amino acid, and the protein is built from that code.

Ribosomal RNA, or rRNA, is a major part of ribosomes and helps align the mRNA correctly. rRNA also has enzymatic activity called peptidyl transferase, which helps form peptide bonds between aligned amino acids. Transfer RNA, or tRNA, is one of the smallest RNA types, usually 70 to 90 nucleotides long. It brings the correct amino acid to the protein synthesis site, and base pairing between tRNA and mRNA helps place the right amino acid in the growing polypeptide chain. MicroRNAs are the smallest RNA molecules, and they regulate gene expression by interfering with certain mRNA messages. Even though RNA is single-stranded, many RNA types form internal base pairs that give them a predictable three-dimensional shape needed for function.

DNA and RNA: Genetic Instructions

functional groups

Functional Groups in Organic Chemistry

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dna base pairing

Chargaff’s Rules and DNA Pairing

Chargaff’s rules and DNA base pairing explain how DNA strands match up. In double-stranded DNA, adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T), and guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C). Chargaff also found that A equals T, G equals C, and the total amount of purines (A and G) equals the total amount of pyrimidines (C and T). Watson and Crick later showed why these matches matter. A forms two hydrogen bonds with T, while G forms three hydrogen bonds with C. These pairings keep the DNA double helix a...

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amino acids

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peptide bonds

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nucleic acids

DNA and RNA are the nucleic acids that store genetic information and help direct cell activity. These macromolecules carry the cell’s genetic blueprint and the instructions it uses to function. DNA is the genetic material in all living organisms, from single-celled bacteria to multicellular mammals. In eukaryotic cells, DNA is found in the nucleus and also in organelles such as chloroplasts and mitochondria. In prokaryotes, DNA is not enclosed in a membrane. The full genetic content of a cell...

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from dna to protein

The Genetic Code and Codons

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Polymer Chains and How They Form

Polymers are long chains of molecules made from repeating units called monomers. The word polymer comes from the Greek words "poly," meaning many, and "mer," meaning parts. Polymers can be found in nature, such as DNA and proteins, or made synthetically, such as plastics. A polymer’s shape helps define its properties. Some polymers form linear chains, while others are branched or arranged in complex networks. Functional groups on a polymer also affect how it behaves. The repeating units in a...

key terms and concepts

Explore how DNA and RNA store genetic information, pair bases, and guide protein synthesis through mRNA, rRNA, tRNA, and microRNA.

DNA and RNA: Genetic Instructions | JoVE K12

chemistry

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Compare and contrast existing models, identify patterns, and use structural and functional evidence to analyze the characteristics of life. Engage in argument about the designation of viruses as non-living based on these characteristics.
EXPLANATION: Students begin to develop patterns of living and non-living organisms in kindergarten and build on detailed characteristics of different classifications of living organisms throughout elementary and middle school. Biology 1 discussions introduce viral particles and viral cycles, building on student understanding of living organisms to engage in an argument regarding the classification of a viral particle as either living or non-living.

BIO1.LS1.1

What are Cells?

Cells are the smallest and basic units of life, whether it is a single cell that forms the entire organism, e.g., in a bacterium, or trillions of them, ...

Eukaryotic Compartmentalization

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Evaluate comparative models of various cell types with a focus on organic molecules that make up cellular structures.
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BIO1.LS1.2

Nucleic acids are the most important macromolecules for the continuity of life. They carry the cell&#39;s genetic blueprint and carry instructions for its ...

The DNA Helix

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is the genetic material responsible for passing traits from generation to generation in all organisms and most viruses. DNA ...

DNA Base Pairing

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The Central Dogma

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DNA Packaging

Overview

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Organization of Genes

Overview

The genomes of eukaryotes can be structured in several functional categories. A strand of DNA is comprised of genes and intergenic regions. ...

Karyotyping

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Replication in Prokaryotes

Overview

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Replication in Eukaryotes

Overview

In eukaryotic cells, DNA replication is highly conserved and tightly regulated. Multiple linear chromosomes must be duplicated with high ...

Mutations

Overview

Mutations are changes in the sequence of DNA. These changes can occur spontaneously or they can be induced by exposure to environmental factors. ...

Transcription

Overview
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Translation

Lesson: Translation
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pre-mRNA Processing

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Types of RNA

Overview
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MicroRNAs

siRNA - Small Interfering RNAs

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CRISPR and crRNAs

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lncRNA - Long Non-coding RNAs

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Protein Organization

Protein Folding

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conservation-of-protein-domains-over-different-proteins

Conservation of Protein Domains Over Different Proteins

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Globular and Fibrous Proteins

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Protein Complex Assembly

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Conjugated Proteins

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Allosteric Proteins-ATCase

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Amyloid Fibrils

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Cooperative Allosteric Transitions

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Antibody Structure

Phosphorylation

Ligand Binding Sites

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Protein Kinases and Phosphatases

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Protein-protein Interfaces

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GTPases and their Regulation

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Conserved Binding Sites

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Covalently Linked Protein Regulators

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The Equilibrium Binding Constant and Binding Strength

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protein-complexes-with-interchangeable-parts

Protein Complexes with Interchangeable Parts

Groups of proteins may form a complex where each protein in this complex has a different role in the overall execution of the complex&#8217;s function. ...

Cofactors and Coenzymes

Mechanical Protein Functions

Proteins perform many mechanical functions in a cell. These proteins can be classified into two general categories- proteins that generate mechanical ...

Allosteric Regulation

Structural Protein Function

Structural proteins are a category of proteins responsible for functions ranging from cell shape and movement to providing support to major structures ...

Ligand Binding and Linkage

Allosteric proteins have more than one ligand binding site; the binding of a ligand to any of these sites influences the binding of ligands to the other ...

Protein Networks

An organism can have thousands of different proteins, and these proteins must cooperate to ensure the health of an organism. Proteins bind to other ...

Integrate evidence to develop a structural model of a DNA molecule. Using the model, develop and communicate an explanation for how DNA serves as a template for self-replication and encodes biological information.
EXPLANATION: Discussions of DNA in earlier grades have been limited to discussions of genes and the role of genes in the appearance and activities of an organism. Biology 1 represents a student's introduction to a molecular model of a DNA as well as the organization of DNA into genes and genes subsequently into chromosomes. Students should address interactions between genes in proteins which regulate both the shape and reproduction of DNA molecules. It is important to note that not all segments of DNA are transcribed for proteins. Portions of DNA are involved in regulating the expression of genes or affect the structure of the chromosomes (replication origin, centromeres, and telomeres).

What is the Cell Cycle?

The cell cycle refers to the sequence of events occurring throughout a typical cell&#8217;s life. In eukaryotic cells, the somatic cell cycle has two ...

Interphase

The cell cycle occurs over approximately 24 hours (in a typical human cell) and in two distinct stages: interphase, which includes three phases of the ...

The Cell Cycle Control System

Positive Regulator Molecules

Inhibition of CDK Activity

S-Cdk Initiates DNA Replication

M-Cdk Drives Transition Into Mitosis

Mitogens and the Cell Cycle

Replicative Cell Senescence

Abnormal Proliferation

cells-coordinate-growth-and-proliferation

Cells Coordinate Growth and Proliferation

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

In eukaryotes, the cell division cycle is divided into distinct, coordinated cellular processes that include cell growth, DNA replication/chromosome ...

Chromosome Duplication

Cohesins

Create a model for the major events of the eukaryotic cell cycle, including mitosis. Compare and contrast the rates of cell division in various eukaryotic cell types in multicellular organisms.
EXPLANATION: Students first discuss mitosis in seventh grade, specifically focusing on the role of mitosis in creating genetically identical daughter cells. Biology 1 discussions should connect a student's understanding of gene expression and protein function with the process of mitosis to explore the differentiation of cell types from otherwise identical daughter cells. Discussions should also include varying rates of mitotic division and the relationship between these rates of division and the function of specific cell types within eukaryotic organisms. Examples may include the extremely limited use of mitosis by neurons due to their interconnectedness within neural networks or the rapid rates of mitosis with growing root tips.

BIO1.LS1.6

DNA and RNA: Genetic Instructions

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