Name: glycolysis: how cells break down glucose
Uploaded: 2019-03-11T09:21:10.000Z
Duration: 56 s
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What is Glycolysis?

- [Инструктор] Гликолиз является метаболическим процессомрасщепления сахаров для генерирования энергии. 
Изначально глюкоза попадает в цитоплазму клетки,где трансформируется, проходя две основные фазы. 
Для первой части требуется энергия в виде АТФ,для блокирования молекулы глюкозы внутри,с последующим изменением в течение нескольких этапов. 
Во время второй фазы энергия извлекается из электронов,и приспосабливается, как высокоэнергетический НАДНс большим количеством молекул АТФ. 
После нескольких энзимных этаповпроисходит создание двух трех-углеродных сахаров и пирувата,готовых для транспортировки в митохондриюдля входа в цикл создания лимонной кислоты.

Что такое гликолиз?

<h4>Обзор</h4>

Клетки производят энергию, расщепляя макромолекулы. Клеточное дыхание является биохимическим процессом, который преобразует «пищевую энергию» (из химических связей макромолекул) в химическую энергию в виде аденозинтрифосфата (АТФ). Первым шагом этого жестко регулируемого и сложного процесса является гликолиз. Слово гликолиз происходит от латинского глико (сахар) и лиза (разбивка). Гликолиз выполняет две основные внутриклеточные функции: генерирует АТФ и промежуточные метаболиты для подачи в другие пути. Гликолитический путь преобразует одну шестиуглеродную углеводу, такую как глюкоза), в две тройные молекулы (трехуглеродные углеводы), такие как пируват, и сеть из двух молекул АТФ (четыре произведенных, две потребляемые) и две молекулы никотинамида аденина динуклеотида (NADH).

<h4>О гликолизе</h4>

Знаете ли вы, что гликолиз был первым обнаруженным биохимическим путем? В середине 1800-х годов Луи Пастер определил, что микроорганизмы вызывают распад глюкозы при отсутствии кислорода (ферментации). В 1897 году Эдуард Бухнер обнаружил, что ферментационные реакции все еще могут быть проведены в клеточных экстрактах дрожжей, достигнутых путем взлома клетки и сбора цитоплазмы, которая содержит растворимые молекулы и органеллы. Вскоре после этого, в 1905 году, Артур Харден и Уильям Янг обнаружили, что скорость брожения уменьшается без добавления неорганического фосфата (Pi) и что брожение требует присутствия как теплочувствительных компонентов (позже определены, чтобы содержать ряд ферментов) и низкий молекулярный вес, тепло-стабильная фракция (неорганические ионы, АТФ, ADP и coenzymes как NAD). К 1940 году, усилиями многих людей, полный путь гликолиза был создан Густав Эмбден, Отто Мейерхоф, Якуб Кароль Парнас, и др. В самом деле, гликолиз в настоящее время известен как путь EMP.

<h4>Путь глюкозы</h4>

Глюкоза может проникать в клетки двумя способами: облегченный диффузии через группу интегральных белков, называемых GLUT (глюкоза транспортер) белков, которые трансфер глюкозы в цитозол. Члены семьи белка GLUT присутствуют в определенных тканях по всему организму человека. Кроме того, вторичный активный транспорт перемещает глюкозу против градиента концентрации через трансмембрановый симпортный белок. Симпорт использует электрохимическую энергию от перекачки иона. Примерами являются транспортеры, связанные с натрием и глюкозой в тонком кишечнике, сердце, мозге и почках.

При аэробных (избыток O2) и анаэробных (дефицит O2) условиях, гликолиз может начаться, как только глюкоза попадает в цитозол клетки. Существует две основные фазы гликолиза. Первая фаза требует энергии и считается подготовительным шагом, связывая глюкозу в клетке и реструктурируя шестиуглеродную основу, чтобы ее можно было эффективно расщеплять. Вторым этапом является фаза высвобождения энергии и генерация пирувата.

<h4>Судьба Пирувата</h4>

В зависимости от уровня кислорода и наличия митохондрий, пируват может следовать одному из двух возможных путей. В аэробных условиях, с митохондриями настоящее время, пируват входит в митохондрии, проходя цикл лимонной кислоты и электронной транспортной цепи (ETC), чтобы быть окисленным до CO2, H2O, и далее до АТФ. В отличие от этого, при анаэробных условиях (т.е. рабочих мышцах) или отсутствии митохондрий (т.е. прокариотов) пируват подвергается молочному брожению (т.е. сводится к лактату в анаэробных условиях). Интересно, что дрожжи и некоторые бактерии в анаэробных условиях могут преобразовать пируват в этанол через процесс, известный как брожение алкоголя.

<h4>Регулирование гликолиза</h4>

Для нормального функционирования организма крайне важное значение имеет жесткий контроль и регуляции метаболических путей, опосредованных ферментами, таких как гликолиз. Контроль осуществляется путем ограничения субстрата или ферментной регуляции. Ограничение субстрата возникает, когда концентрация субстрата и продуктов в клетке находится вблизи равновесия. Следовательно, наличие субстрата определяет скорость реакции. В ферментной регуляции концентрация субстрата и продуктов далека от равновесия. Активность фермента определяет скорость реакции, которая контролирует поток общего пути. При гликолизе тремя регулятивными ферментами являются гексокиназа, фосфофруктокиназа и пируватная киназа.

Обзор
Клетки вырабатывают энергию, расщепляя макромолекулы. Клеточное дыхание – это биохимический процесс, который преобразует «энергию пищи» (из ...

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KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

ОСНОВНЫЕ ТЕРМИНЫ И ПОНЯТИЯ

glycolysis: how cells break down glucose

Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration and a key way cells break down glucose to make energy. Cellular respiration converts food energy from macromolecules into ATP, the cell’s main energy currency. Glycolysis also creates intermediate molecules that can feed into other pathways.

In this pathway, one six-carbon sugar such as glucose is split into two three-carbon molecules, including pyruvate. The process produces a net gain of two ATP molecules, since four ATP are made and two are used. It also generates two molecules of NADH, a carrier used in later energy reactions.

The history of glycolysis began with studies of fermentation. In the mid-1800s, Louis Pasteur showed that microorganisms break down glucose without oxygen. In 1897, Eduard Buchner found that fermentation could still happen in cell-free yeast extracts, which showed that the cytoplasm contains the needed soluble components.

Later, Arthur Harden and William Young found that fermentation slows without inorganic phosphate. They also showed that the process needs both a heat-sensitive part, later linked to enzymes, and a heat-stable part with small molecules such as inorganic ions, ATP, ADP, and coenzymes like NAD. By 1940, Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof, Jakub Karol Parnas, and others had established the full pathway, which is now also called the EMP pathway.

Glucose can enter cells in two main ways before glycolysis begins. GLUT proteins move glucose into the cytosol by facilitated diffusion. Transmembrane symporter proteins can also bring glucose in against its concentration gradient by secondary active transport, using energy from ion pumping. Sodium-glucose-linked transporters are examples found in the small intestine, heart, brain, and kidneys.

Glycolysis can begin after glucose enters the cytosol under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The pathway has two main phases. The first is an energy-requiring preparatory phase that traps glucose in the cell and rearranges its six-carbon backbone so it can be split efficiently. The second phase releases energy and forms pyruvate.

Pyruvate can follow different paths depending on oxygen and mitochondria. Under aerobic conditions with mitochondria, pyruvate enters the mitochondria and continues through the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain, where it is oxidized to carbon dioxide, water, and more ATP. Under anaerobic conditions, such as in working muscles, or in cells without mitochondria, such as prokaryotes, pyruvate undergoes lactate fermentation. Yeast and some bacteria can instead convert pyruvate to ethanol through alcohol fermentation.

Glycolysis is tightly regulated because metabolic pathways must be controlled for proper cell function. Regulation can depend on substrate limitation, which occurs when substrate and product levels are near equilibrium and the available substrate sets the reaction rate. It can also depend on enzyme-linked regulation, where the pathway is controlled by key enzymes. Hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase are three enzymes that help determine the overall flux of glycolysis.

Glycolysis: How Cells Break Down Glucose

what is glycolysis?

Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration and a key way cells break down glucose to make energy. Cellular respiration converts food energy from macromolecules into ATP, the cell’s main energy currency. Glycolysis also creates intermediate molecules that can feed into other pathways. In this pathway, one six-carbon sugar such as glucose is split into two three-carbon molecules, including pyruvate. The process produces a net gain of two ATP molecules, since four ATP are made and two...

energy-requiring steps of glycolysis

Glycolysis: Glucose Trapping and Splitting

Glycolysis begins in the cytosol, where glucose is prepared for use as energy. This process has two phases: an energy-requiring phase and an energy-releasing phase. The first phase changes glucose into a more reactive, unstable form before it can move into later steps. In the first step, glucose is phosphorylated, which means a phosphate group is added from ATP. This produces glucose 6-phosphate. The added phosphate is negatively charged, so it cannot cross the hydrophobic cell membrane. As a...

energy-releasing steps of glycolysis

Glycolysis: ATP and NADH Formation

Glycolysis produces ATP and NADH during its energy-releasing phase. These reactions are the last steps of glycolysis and convert glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, or G3P, into pyruvate. The phase is often described as steps 6 to 10, and it happens twice because two 3-carbon sugars are made earlier in glycolysis. The sixth step begins with two linked events. G3P is oxidized, which means it loses hydrogen, and it is phosphorylated, which means a phosphate group is added. NAD+ acts as the electron...

pyruvate oxidation

How Pyruvate Becomes Acetyl CoA

Pyruvate is prepared for the next stage of cellular respiration inside the mitochondria. After glycolysis, the charged pyruvate molecules enter the mitochondria by active transport. There, they go through three enzymatic reactions so the energy stored in pyruvate can be used by the cell. First, pyruvate dehydrogenase removes the carboxyl group from pyruvate. This step releases carbon dioxide. Next, the stripped molecule is oxidized, and the electrons are picked up by NAD+ to make NADH. The...

the citric acid cycle

Citric Acid Cycle Energy and Products

The citric acid cycle is a key energy-making pathway in cells. It is also called the Krebs cycle or the TCA cycle. In eukaryotic cells, it takes place in the matrix of mitochondria. In prokaryotic cells, it occurs in the cytoplasm. The cycle starts with acetyl CoA, which enters the pathway after pyruvate oxidation. That earlier step makes two acetyl CoA molecules per glucose molecule. For that reason, the citric acid cycle runs twice for each glucose molecule. The pathway includes eight...

electron transport chains

ATP Production by the Electron Transport Chain

ATP production in the electron transport chain is the final stage of cellular respiration. This stage is part of oxidative phosphorylation, which has two steps: the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis. In eukaryotic cells, the electron transport chain sits in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Its main job is to build a proton gradient. That gradient is then used during chemiosmosis to make ATP. The process also regenerates the electron carriers NAD+ and FAD, which are needed again in...

chemiosmosis

ATP Production by Chemiosmosis

ATP production by chemiosmosis is part of oxidative phosphorylation, the efficient stage of cellular respiration that makes most of the cell’s ATP. Oxidative phosphorylation includes two linked processes: the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis. Together, they help generate adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, the main energy molecule used by cells. The electron transport chain is a series of protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane. These complexes pass electrons through a set...

electron carriers

Electron Carriers in Cellular Respiration

Electron carriers help move electrons through cellular respiration. They act like shuttles that can accept electrons, which means they are reduced, or give electrons away, which means they are oxidized. This changing between oxidized and reduced forms is essential for energy production. As glucose breaks down into carbon dioxide and water, it loses electrons at several stages. Electron carriers pick up those electrons and store them temporarily. They then release the electrons into the...

fermentation

Fermentation Pathways Without Oxygen

Fermentation is a metabolic pathway that lets cells make energy without oxygen. It begins after glucose is split into two pyruvate molecules during glycolysis. Glycolysis is the same first step used in aerobic respiration. When oxygen is unavailable, pyruvate does not enter aerobic respiration. Instead, cells convert pyruvate into other organic molecules through pathways that depend on the organism. A key purpose of fermentation is to regenerate NAD+ from NADH so glycolysis can keep running. <br...

dietary connections

How Food Becomes ATP

Food becomes ATP through connected steps in cellular respiration. Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids all feed into these pathways. The body can use foods such as apples, cheese, and guacamole as sources of energy. Carbohydrate digestion starts with enzymes that break complex carbohydrates into simple sugars. Glucose can enter glycolysis directly. Fructose and galactose must first be converted into sugars that are intermediates of the glycolytic pathway. Proteins are digested into amino acids.

introduction to cellular respiration

Cellular Respiration: ATP Production Steps

Cellular respiration is the process cells use to turn energy from food into ATP. ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, stores energy in chemical bonds that can be released quickly when cells need it. Much of the energy released during respiration becomes heat, but some of it is captured to make ATP. This process depends on oxidation-reduction, or redox, reactions. In these reactions, oxidation means electron loss and reduction means electron gain. The electron carriers NAD+ and FAD, along with their...

products of the citric acid cycle

Citric Acid Cycle Output in Cellular Respiration

The citric acid cycle is a key stage of aerobic respiration in cells. It is also called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Plants and animals use this oxygen-requiring pathway as part of cellular respiration. This cycle happens after glycolysis and pyruvate oxidation. Glycolysis makes two pyruvate molecules from each glucose molecule. During pyruvate oxidation, each pyruvate becomes acetyl-CoA, which is the input for the citric acid cycle. That means one glucose molecule...

outcomes of glycolysis

Glycolysis Products in Cellular Respiration

Glycolysis is the first step of cellular respiration and breaks glucose into smaller molecules. Cells use this process to pull energy from glucose over a series of chemical reactions. Cellular respiration can happen with oxygen or without oxygen. In both aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration, glycolysis makes a net gain of two pyruvate molecules, two NADH molecules, and two ATP molecules. Four ATP molecules are produced, but two ATP molecules are used earlier in the pathway. Glycolysis...

atp yield

How Cellular Respiration Makes ATP

Cellular respiration makes ATP from glucose in several stages. The process usually produces 30 to 32 ATP per glucose molecule. Most of that ATP comes from oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport chain, while 4 ATP are made earlier, with 2 from glycolysis and 2 from the citric acid cycle. The electron transport chain, or ETC, sits in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It has four main protein complexes and ATP synthase, the enzyme that makes ATP. NADH and FADH2 deliver electrons to...

key terms and concepts

Learn how glycolysis breaks down glucose, produces ATP and NADH, and connects to pyruvate fate, fermentation, and pathway regulation in cells.

Glycolysis: How Cells Break Down Glucose | JoVE K12

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Glycolysis: How Cells Break Down Glucose

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