Name: primary, rechargeable batteries and fuel cells
Uploaded: 2020-09-24T15:06:52.000Z
Duration: 3 min 12 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

9-12

Physical Science

Forces and Interactions

3.2.9-12.M

Batteries and Fuel Cells

Аккумуляторы это гальванические элементы, используемые в качестве переносных источников электроэнергии. Они подразделяются на первичные или неперезаряжаемые и вторичные или перезаряжаемые батареи. Обычный первичный аккумулятор это сухой элемент.Он содержит цинковый корпус в качестве анода и графитовый катод, погруженный во влажную кислую электролитную пасту из оксида марганца и хлорида аммония. Цинк окисляется до хлорида цинка, а оксид марганца восстанавливается до твердого оксида марганца генерируя потенциал 1, 5 вольта. При работе электроды разряжаются, что делает сухие аккумуляторы одноразовыми.Щелочные аккумуляторы аналогичны, но в них используется щелочной электролит, увеличивающий срок их хранения и срок службы. Свинцово-кислотные аккумуляторы это вторичные аккумуляторы, которые преимущественно используются в автомобилях. Обычно они имеют шесть последовательно соединенных электрохимических ячеек, генерирующих общий потенциал 12 вольт.Каждая ячейка имеет свинцовый анод и катод из оксида свинца, погруженные в серную кислоту. Во время разряда в окислительно-восстановительные реакциях образуется твердый сульфат свинца на обоих электродах, который снова преобразуется во время зарядки с помощью внешнего источника питания. Никель-кадмиевые аккумуляторы содержат катод из оксигидроксида никеля, анод из кадмия и электролит гидроксид калия.При работе анод окисляется до твердого гидроксида кадмия, а катод восстанавливается до твердого гидроксида никеля, создавая потенциал ячейки 1, 3 вольта. Однако токсичность кадмия заставляет заменять никель-кадмиевые аккумуляторы экологически чистыми никель-металлогидридными аккумуляторами. Здесь катод остался прежним, а анодом выполнен из сплава, поглощающего водород.Анодная реакция включает образование воды из водорода. Литий-ионные аккумуляторы новейшие аккумуляторы. Легкий металлический литий делает эти аккумуляторы портативными и дает высокую плотность энергии.Литий-ионный аккумулятор содержит анод из литиированного графита и катод из оксида лития-переходного металла. При зарядке переходный металл окисляется, а ионы лития внедряются между слоями графита анода. После разряда ионы лития текут от анода к катоду, создавая потенциал 3, 7 вольта.Наконец, топливные элементы представляют собой гальванические элементы, которым для производства энергии требуется постоянная внешняя подача окислительно-восстановительных реагентов. Типичный водородный топливный элемент использует водород и кислород из воздуха для генерации тока с выделением воды. Графитовые электроды содержат катализаторы на основе платины для ускорения окислительно-восстановительной реакции.

Аккумуляторы и топливные элементы

Аккумуляторная батарея представляет собой гальваническую ячейку, которая используется в качестве источника электропитания для определенных областей применения. Современные батареи существуют в различных формах для различных областей применения, от миниатюрных батареек, таких как батареи, которые наручные часы, до очень больших батарей, используемых для подачи резервной энергии в муниципальные электросети. Некоторые аккумуляторы предназначены для одноразового использования и не могут быть перезаряжены (основные ячейки), в то время как другие батареи основаны на удобной реакции обратимая, которая позволяет подзаряжать аккумуляторы от внешнего источника питания (вторичные ячейки). 
 Одноразовые (основные) батареи 
 Сухой элемент питания — это обычная основная батарея, в которой в качестве контейнера и анода используется цинк («–») и графитовый стержень в качестве катода («+» клемма). В емкость Zn заливается электролитная паста, содержащая оксид марганца (IV), хлорид цинка (II), хлорид аммония и воду. Графитовый стержень погружается в электролитную пасту для заполнения ячейки. Спонтанная клеточная реакция включает: 
 <img alt="Eq1" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_1.png" style="text-align: center; height: 168px;" />
 Напряжение (потенциал ячейки) сухой ячейки составляет приблизительно 1.5 в (Эклет ~ 1.5 в). Сухие ячейки доступны в различных размерах (например, D, C, AA, AAA). Все размеры сухих элементов состоят из одних и тех же компонентов и имеют одинаковое напряжение, но более крупные ячейки содержат большее количество окислительно-восстановительного реагенты и, следовательно, способны передавать соответственно большее количество заряда. Как и другие гальванические элементы, сухие ячейки могут быть соединены последовательно для получения батарей с более высоким выходным напряжением, если это необходимо.  
 Щелочные батареи были разработаны для тех же пар ОВП, что и сухие батареи. Как показывает их название, в этих типах батарей используются щелочные электролиты, часто гидроксид калия. Реакция на это 
 <img alt="Eq2" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_2.png" style="text-align: center; height: 130px;" />
 Щелочная батарея может обеспечивать в три-пять раз больше энергии сухой ячейки аналогичного размера (Ecell = +1,43 в). Щелочные батареи подвержены утечке гидроксида калия, поэтому их следует извлекать из устройств для длительного хранения. Хотя некоторые щелочные батареи перезаряжены, большинство из них не являются. 
 Перезаряжаемые (вторичные) батареи 
 Никель-кадмиевые батареи, или NiCd, состоят из никелированного катода, анода с кадмием и гидроксида калия. Положительные и отрицательные пластины, которые не могут быть закоращены сепаратором, свернуты и помещены в корпус. Такая конструкция позволяет аккумулятору NiCd подавать гораздо больше тока, чем щелочной батареке аналогичного размера. Реакция на это 
 <img alt="Eq3" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_3.png" style="text-align: center; height: 130px;" />
 При правильном обращении никель-кадмиевый аккумулятор можно перезаряжать примерно 1000 раз ( Ecell ~ 1.3 в). Кадмий является токсичным тяжелым металлом, поэтому никель-кадмиевые батареи никогда не должны быть разорваны или сожжены, и их следует утилизировать в соответствии с соответствующими рекомендациями по утилизации токсичных отходов. 
 Литий-ионные аккумуляторы являются одними из самых популярных аккумуляторов и используются во многих портативных электронных устройствах. Реакция на это 
 <img alt="Eq4" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_4.png" style="text-align: center; height: 130px;" />
 Переменная стехиометрия реакции клетки приводит к колебаниям напряжения клеток, но для типичных условий x обычно не превышает 0.5, а напряжение ячейки составляет приблизительно 3.7 в (Экатель ~ 3.7). Литиевые батареи популярны, потому что они могут обеспечивать большой ток, легче, чем аналогичные батареи других типов, вырабатывают почти постоянное напряжение при разрядке и лишь медленно теряют заряд при хранении. 
 Свинцово-кислотный аккумулятор также является типом вторичной аккумуляторной батареи, обычно используемой в автомобилях. Он недорог и способен вырабатывает ток, необходимый автомобильным стартеорам. Реакции на свинцово-кислотную батарею составляют 
 <img alt="Eq5" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_5.png" style="text-align: center; height: 160px;" />
 Каждая ячейка производит 2 в (Ecell ~ 2 в), так что шесть ячеек соединены последовательно, чтобы создать 12-вольтную автомобильную батарею. Свинцово-кислотные батареи тяжелые и содержат едкий жидкий электролит H2SO4 (aq), но часто остаются предпочтительными по своему выбору из-за высокой плотности тока. Так как в этих аккумуляторах содержится большое количество свинца, их необходимо утилизировать надлежащим образом. 
 Топливные элементы 
 A fuel cell is a galvanic cell that uses traditional combustive fuels, most often hydrogen or methane, that are continuously fed into the cell along with an oxidant. Within the cell, fuel and oxidant undergo the same redox chemistry as when they are combusted, but via a catalyzed electrochemical that is significantly more efficient. For example, a typical hydrogen fuel cell uses graphite electrodes embedded with platinum-based catalysts to accelerate the two half-cell reactions:
 <img alt="Eq6" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_6.png" style="text-align: center; height: 130px;" />
 These types of fuel cells generally produce voltages of approximately 1.23 V (Ecell ~ 1.23 V). Compared to an internal combustion engine, the energy efficiency of a fuel cell using the same redox reaction is typically more than double (~20%–25% for an engine versus ~50%–75% for a fuel cell). Hydrogen fuel cells are commonly used on extended space missions, and prototypes for personal vehicles have been developed.
 This text is adapted from <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/17-5-batteries-and-fuel-cells">Openstax, Химия 2е изд., Section 17.5: Batteries, and Fuel Cells.</a>

Аккумулятор — это гальванический элемент, который используется в качестве источника электроэнергии для определенных применений. Современные аккумуляторы существуют во множестве форм для ...

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primary, rechargeable batteries and fuel cells

Batteries and fuel cells are galvanic cells that supply electrical power for many applications. They range from tiny button batteries in wristwatches to large systems that can provide backup energy to municipal power grids. Some are primary cells, which are single-use and cannot be recharged. Others are secondary cells, which use reversible reactions and can be charged again by an external power source.

A common primary battery is the dry cell. It uses zinc as both the container and the anode, or negative terminal, and a graphite rod as the cathode, or positive terminal. The zinc can holds an electrolyte paste with manganese(IV) oxide, zinc(II) chloride, ammonium chloride, and water. A dry cell has a voltage of about 1.5 V. It comes in sizes such as D, C, AA, and AAA. These sizes use the same parts and the same voltage, but larger cells contain more reactants and can transfer more charge. Dry cells can also be connected in series to increase voltage.

Alkaline batteries use the same redox couples as dry cells, but they use an alkaline electrolyte, often potassium hydroxide. They can deliver about three to five times the energy of a dry cell of similar size and have a cell potential of about 1.43 V. These batteries can leak potassium hydroxide, so they should be removed from devices during long-term storage. Some alkaline batteries are rechargeable, but most are not.

Rechargeable batteries include nickel-cadmium, or NiCd, batteries, lithium-ion batteries, and lead-acid batteries. A NiCd battery has a nickel-plated cathode, a cadmium-plated anode, and a potassium hydroxide electrode. The positive and negative plates are rolled together with a separator to keep them from shorting. This design lets a NiCd cell deliver much more current than a similar-sized alkaline battery. When treated properly, it can be recharged about 1000 times, and its cell potential is about 1.3 V. Cadmium is toxic, so NiCd batteries should not be ruptured or burned and must be disposed of as toxic waste.

Lithium-ion batteries are widely used in portable electronic devices. Their reaction has variable stoichiometry, so the voltage can vary, but under typical conditions the cell potential is about 3.7 V. These batteries are popular because they can provide a large amount of current, are lighter than comparable batteries of other types, and keep a nearly constant voltage as they discharge. They also lose charge slowly during storage. Lead-acid batteries are common in automobiles. They are inexpensive and can deliver the high current needed by starter motors. Each cell produces 2 V, so six cells are connected in series to make a 12-V car battery. These batteries are heavy and contain a caustic sulfuric acid electrolyte, and they also contain a significant amount of lead, so they must be disposed of properly.

A fuel cell is also a galvanic cell, but it uses a fuel that is continuously fed into the cell along with an oxidant. The fuel is often hydrogen or methane. Inside the cell, the same redox chemistry that occurs in combustion is carried out by a catalyzed electrochemical process that is much more efficient. A typical hydrogen fuel cell uses graphite electrodes with platinum-based catalysts to speed the half-cell reactions. These fuel cells usually produce about 1.23 V. Compared with an internal combustion engine, a fuel cell using the same redox reaction is typically more than twice as efficient. Hydrogen fuel cells are used on extended space missions, and prototypes for personal vehicles have been developed.

Primary, Rechargeable Batteries and Fuel Cells

primary-rechargeable-batteries-and-fuel-cells

balancing redox equations

Redox Reactions and Half-Reaction Balancing

Redox reactions involve electron transfer and changes in oxidation number. In electrochemistry, these reactions connect chemical changes with electrical energy. They also power technologies such as industrial metal processing and rechargeable batteries used in electric vehicles. Oxidation number is a way to track how an atom's electronic environment changes compared with the pure element, where the oxidation number is zero. For a simple ionic compound, the oxidation number matches the ion...

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Cell Voltage and Electron Flow

Electric current is the flow of electric charge through a conducting medium or a solution. In wires, that charge is carried by electrons. In some solutions, ions can also move and carry charge. When electrons move through a wire, they produce an electric current. This idea connects to redox reactions, where electrons are lost and gained. In the spontaneous reaction between zinc and copper ions, zinc is oxidized to zinc ions. Copper ions are reduced to solid copper. Even so, this direct...

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Galvanic Cells and Battery Reactions

Galvanic cells use spontaneous redox reactions to produce electric current. A common example is a disposable AA battery, which powers devices by turning chemical energy into electrical energy. Another example is a copper wire placed in silver nitrate solution, where the solution slowly turns bright blue and a grey solid forms on the wire. In the copper and silver reaction, copper is oxidized and silver ions are reduced. Copper forms cuprous ions, which give the solution its blue color. At the...

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Using Electrode Potentials to Predict Reactions

Electrode potentials help predict whether a redox reaction will happen on its own. A redox reaction involves electron transfer. In electrochemistry, the measured value is called cell potential or cell voltage. It shows the energy linked to charge transfer and is measured in volts, where 1 volt equals 1 joule per coulomb. A single half-cell cannot be measured by itself because electron transfer needs both a donor and a receiver. For that reason, scientists measure the difference between two...

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Redox Cell Potential, ΔG°, and K

Redox cell potential connects chemical energy, free energy change, and the equilibrium constant in an electrochemical cell. In these reactions, chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. That link helps predict whether a reaction is spontaneous and how far it may proceed. Thermodynamics is the study of how heat and other forms of energy are related. In an electrochemical cell, cell potential can also reflect oxidizing strength or reducing strength. A similar idea appears in acid-base...

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Cell Potential Under Changing Conditions

Cell potential changes when a redox reaction does not run at standard conditions. Standard cell potentials connect with standard free energy change, ΔG°, and the equilibrium constant K, but those relationships only hold at 1 M concentration, 298 K, and 1 atmosphere. A zinc(II) and tin(II) redox cell with E°cell = +0.291 V and ΔG° = −56.2 kJ is spontaneous under those standard conditions. As a cell discharges, the reactant concentration changes and the cell potential steadily drops. Many redox...

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Cell Potential from Concentration Differences

Concentration cells are voltaic cells that use two almost identical half-cells. The half-cells use the same electrode and the same half-reaction. They differ only in the concentration of one redox species, so the cell potential depends on that concentration difference. In a concentration cell, the Nernst equation can be used to find the cell potential. For the zinc example shown, the calculated cell potential is positive. A positive cell potential means the overall reaction is spontaneous. <br...

batteries and fuel cells

Batteries and fuel cells are galvanic cells that supply electrical power for many applications. They range from tiny button batteries in wristwatches to large systems that can provide backup energy to municipal power grids. Some are primary cells, which are single-use and cannot be recharged. Others are secondary cells, which use reversible reactions and can be charged again by an external power source. A common primary battery is the dry cell. It uses zinc as both the container and the anode,...

corrosion

Rusting and Metal Protection

Corrosion is the natural breakdown of metals through electrochemical reactions. It can appear as rust on iron, tarnish on silver, or a blue-green patina on copper. In each case, the metal is oxidized. Some corrosion products can protect the surface, while others keep damaging the metal. Rusting is the harmful type of corrosion seen in iron. It happens when iron is exposed to oxygen and water. A galvanic cell forms on the iron surface, and this drives oxidation at the anodic region and...

electrolysis

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Electrolysis uses electrical energy to drive a nonspontaneous redox reaction. In a galvanic cell, a spontaneous redox reaction does electrical work on the surroundings by sending electrons through an external circuit. In electrolysis, an external circuit does work on the redox system by applying a voltage large enough to force the reaction in the opposite direction. This process is used in several real-world settings. Recharging a battery is one example, because an outside power source drives...

key terms and concepts

Explore dry cells, alkaline batteries, NiCd, lithium-ion, and lead-acid batteries, plus how hydrogen fuel cells turn fuel into electricity more efficiently.

Primary, Rechargeable Batteries and Fuel Cells | JoVE K12

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Motion And Stability: Forces And Interactions

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Newton's Second Law

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Second Law: Motion under Same Force

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Second Law: Motion under Same Acceleration

Newton&#39;s second law of motion applies to bodies moving under the same acceleration. For example, when a baggage tractor pulls luggage carts, each cart ...

Students who demonstrate understanding can analyze data to support the claim that Newton's second law of motion describes the mathematical relationship among the net force on a macroscopic object, its mass, and its acceleration.  Clarifying Statement: Examples of data could include tables or graphs of position or velocity as a function of time for objects subject to a net unbalanced force, such as a falling object, an object sliding down a ramp, or a moving object being pulled by a constant force.  Assessment Boundry: Assessment is limited to one-dimensional motion and to macroscopic objects moving at non-relativistic speeds.

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Inertial Frames of Reference

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	Identify a closed system, where the total mass is constant, and no net ...

Students who demonstrate understanding can use mathematical representations to support the claim that the total momentum of a system of objects is conserved when there is no net force on the system.  Clarifying Statement: Emphasis is on the quantitative conservation of momentum in interactions and the qualitative meaning of this principle.  Assessment Boundry: Assessment is limited to systems of two macroscopic bodies moving in one dimension.

3.2.9-12.J

Students who demonstrate understanding can apply scientific and engineering ideas to design, evaluate and refine a device that minimizes the force on a macroscopic object during a collision. Clarifying Statement: Examples of evaluation and refinement could include determining the success of the device at protecting an object from damage and modifying the design to improve it. Examples of a device could include a football helmet or a parachute. Assessment Boundry: Assessment is limited to qualitative evaluations and/or algebraic manipulations.

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Gravitation

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Newton's Law of Gravitation

Our everyday observation tells us that all objects close to the Earth naturally tend to fall to the ground. Early philosophers assumed that this downward ...

Electric Charges

From lightning during thunderstorms to electronic devices, the phenomenon of electromagnetism is all around us. The electromagnetic force is one of the ...

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Sources and Properties of Electric Charge

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Coulomb's Law

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The Principle of Superposition and the Gravitational Field

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Electric Field

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Magnetic Fields

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Magnetic Field due to Moving Charges

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Consider a point charge moving with a ...

Electromagnetic Fields

Electric fields generated by static charges, often referred to as electrostatic fields, are characteristically different from electric fields created by ...

Students who demonstrate understanding can use mathematical representations of Newton's Law of Gravitation and Coulomb's Law to describe and predict the gravitational and electrostatic forces between objects. Clarifying Statement: Emphasis is on both quantitative and conceptual descriptions of gravitational and electric fields. Assessment Boundry: Assessment is limited to systems with two objects.

3.2.9-12.L

Energy Transfer in Chemical Reactions

Chemical reactions require sufficient energy to cause the matter to collide with enough precision and force that old chemical bonds can be broken and new ...

A battery is a galvanic cell that is used as a source of electrical power for specific applications. Modern batteries exist in a multitude of forms to ...

Students who demonstrate understanding can plan and conduct an investigation to provide evidence that an electric current can produce a magnetic field and that a changing magnetic field can produce an electric current. Clarifying Statement: N/A Assessment Boundry: Assessment is limited to designing and conducting investigations with provided materials and tools.

Primary, Rechargeable Batteries and Fuel Cells

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