Name: cellular energy from glucose breakdown
Uploaded: 2019-01-29T11:04:45.000Z
Duration: 5 min
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Biology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms- Structures and Processes

LS.Bio.3.3

Cellular Respiration

Everything that is alive requires an energy source to fuel its activities. Ultimately, that source of energy is the sun. How then did the organisms on Earth harness this energy? It all starts with the photosynthesizers. These organisms are able to take carbon dioxide and water and then use energy captured from the sun as photons to force these molecules together, producing glucose and oxygen. The glucose is the key to the next critical step, one that nearly all organisms use in one form or another - cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is carried out by enzymes, either in the cell membrane in prokaryotes or in the mitochondria in eukaryotes.

The chemical reaction begins by breaking down the glucose using oxygen to create carbon dioxide and water again, but in the process, the energy that originally went into making the glucose molecule goes to two new places. One is into synthesizing ATP, or adenosine triphosphate molecules, an energy source that cells can readily use. The rest is lost as heat. So far, we have been talking about a kind of cellular respiration that uses oxygen, and this is referred to as aerobic respiration, but some organisms and cells are capable of doing respiration in the absence of oxygen. This is called anaerobic respiration. And instead of producing CO2 and water, this process makes ethanol as a byproduct. Fermentation is an example of this type of respiration. This is how yeast are able to produce alcohol in sealed containers. We can use a tool called a respirometer to measure aerobic respiration. Quite simply, this device measures the amount of oxygen used by an organism, germinating plant seeds in this case. Germinating seeds are respiring, which means we can expect them to be using up oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide. They don&#39;t have their green parts yet, so they aren&#39;t photosynthesizing.

Measuring respiration in a respirometer uses a clever method based on the ideal gas law, P times V equals n times R times T. P is the pressure of the system. V is the volume of the gas. n is the number of moles of gas present. R is the ideal gas constant&#8230;and T is the absolute temperature. Simply summarized, this means that you can figure out how many molecules of gas are present in a sample by measuring its volume, assuming you know the pressure and temperature, because R is a constant.

Respirometers contain potassium hydroxide, which traps carbon dioxide in solid form as potassium carbonate. So, due to cellular respiration, the oxygen in the sealed tube gets used up by the seeds, and they release carbon dioxide, which in turn gets trapped as potassium carbonate. Thus, as cellular respiration progresses, the total volume of gas inside the system decreases. We can quantify this by attaching the respirometer to a device called a manometer. Here, as the oxygen molecules are consumed, the pressure drops inside the respirometer chamber, and a colored liquid inside a tiny capillary tube is pulled in the direction of the decreased pressure. We can then estimate the quantity of gas remaining in the respirometer tube by reading off the value on the manometer level. This versatile system can be set up with many different variables, like different temperatures for example, and can be used to test the rate of respiration in many different types of living organisms.

In this lab, you will use a respirometer and manometer to measure the respiration rate of germinating seeds.

cellular respiration

<h4>Autotrophs and Heterotrophs</h4>

Living organisms require a continuous input of energy to maintain cellular and organismal functions such as growth, repair, movement, defense, and reproduction. Cells can only use chemical energy to fuel their functions, therefore they need to harvest energy from chemical bonds of biomolecules, such as sugars and lipids. Autotrophic organisms, namely plants, algae, and photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria, convert inorganic materials into such biomolecules by harnessing energy from the environment, such as from sunlight during photosynthesis. Heterotrophic organisms are unable to synthesize high-energy biomolecules from inorganic materials, so they obtain energy by consuming carbon compounds produced by other organisms, primarily from autotrophs. When energy is needed, chemical bonds of carbon compounds are broken to harvest the energy stored in these bonds. The processes to harvest energy from biomolecules are called cellular respiration.

Cellular respiration occurs in both autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms, where energy becomes available to the organism most commonly through the conversion of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to adenosine triphosphate (ATP). There are two main types of cellular respiration&#8212;aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration is a specific type of cellular respiration, in which oxygen (O2) is required to create ATP. In this case, glucose (C6H12O6) can be oxidized completely in a series of enzymatic reactions to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).

<h4>Aerobic Respiration</h4>

Aerobic respiration occurs in three stages. A process called glycolysis splits glucose into two three-carbon molecules called pyruvate. This process releases energy, some of which is transferred to ATP. Next, pyruvate molecules enter the mitochondria to take part in a series of reactions called the Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle. This completes the breakdown of glucose, harvesting some of the energy into ATP and transferring electrons onto carrier molecules. In the last stage, known as oxidative phosphorylation, electrons pass through an electron transport system in the mitochondrial inner membrane, which maintains a gradient of hydrogen ions. Cells harness the energy of this proton gradient to generate the majority of the ATP during aerobic respiration.

<h4>Anaerobic Respiration</h4>

Aerobic respiration requires oxygen, however, there are many organisms that live in places where oxygen is not readily available or where other chemicals overwhelm the environment. Extremophiles are bacteria that can live in places such as deep ocean hydrothermal vents or underwater caves. Rather than using oxygen to undergo cellular respiration, these organisms use inorganic acceptors such as nitrate or sulfur, which are more easily obtainable in these harsh environments. This process is called anaerobic respiration.

When oxygen is not present and cellular respiration cannot take place, a special anaerobic respiration called fermentation occurs. Fermentation starts with glycolysis to capture some of the energy stored in glucose into ATP. However, since oxidative phosphorylation does not occur, fermentation produces fewer ATP molecules than aerobic respiration. In humans, fermentation occurs in red blood cells that lack mitochondria, as well in muscles during strenuous activity generating lactic acid as a byproduct, therefore it is named lactic acid fermentation. Some bacteria carry out lactic acid fermentation and are used to make products such as yogurt. In yeast, a process known as alcoholic fermentation generates ethanol and carbon dioxide as byproducts, and has been used by humans to ferment beverages or leaven dough.

<h4>Photosynthesis</h4>

Cellular respiration together with photosynthesis is a feature of the transfer of energy and matter, and highlights the interaction of organisms with their environment and other organisms in the community. Cellular respiration takes place inside individual cells, however, at the scale of ecosystems, the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide through photosynthesis and cellular respiration affects atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.

Interestingly, the processes of cellular respiration and photosynthesis are directly opposite of one another, where the products of one reaction are the reactants of the other. Photosynthesis produces the glucose that is used in cellular respiration to make ATP. This glucose is then converted back into CO2 during respiration, which is a reactant used in photosynthesis. More specifically, photosynthesis constructs one glucose molecule from six CO2 and six H2O molecules by capturing energy from sunlight and releases six O2 molecules as a byproduct. Cellular respiration uses six O2 molecules to convert one glucose molecule into six CO2 and six H2O molecules while harnessing energy as ATP and heat.

<h4>Measuring Respiration</h4>

Scientists can measure the rate of cellular respiration using a respirometer by assessing the rate of exchange of oxygen. Understanding the Ideal Gas Law is of fundamental importance for knowing how the respirometer functions. The Ideal Gas Law states that the number of gas molecules in a container can be determined from the pressure, volume, and temperature. More specifically, the product of the volume and pressure of a gas equals the product of the number of gas molecules, the ideal gas constant and the temperature of the gas. Respirometers contain potassium hydroxide which traps carbon dioxide that is produced by respiration in solid form as potassium carbonate. When cells consume oxygen, the gas volume in the respirometer system decreases with no carbon dioxide to increase it back up, allowing scientists to calculate the amount of oxygen used using the ideal gas equation.

Cellular respiration is an important process that creates usable energy for organisms, therefore, studying the contexts in which it is improved or impeded is not only interesting, but also necessary. Especially, mitochondria are essential for cellular respiration and any conditions that affect mitochondrial health have immense consequences for the health of the organism. For instance, mitochondrial myopathies are a group of neuromuscular diseases which are caused by mitochondrial damage, affecting predominantly nerve and muscle cells, which require high levels of energy to function1. Moreover, many poisons work by inhibiting cellular respiration. For example, cyanide inhibits the production of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation, thus understanding the mechanisms cyanide or other metabolic poisons enables treatment of individuals who have been exposed to them2. Similarly, some medications such as certain antibiotics, chemotherapeutics, statins, and anesthetics can also interfere with mitochondrial function and may not be suitable to treat patients that have mitochondrial disorders3.

<h4>References</h4>

<ol class="references">
	<li>Lin, MT and Beal, MF. Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases. Nature. 2006, Vol. 443, (787-95).</li>
	<li>Beasley, DMG and Glass, WI. Cyanide poisoning: pathophysiology and treatment recommendations. Occupational Medicine. Vol. 48, 7 (427-31).</li>
	<li>Finsterer, J and Segall, L. Drugs interfering with mitochondrial disorders. Drug Chem Toxicol. 2010 , Vol. 33, 2 (138-51).</li>
</ol>

Autotrophs and Heterotrophs

Living organisms require a continuous input of energy to maintain cellular and organismal functions such as growth, repair, ...

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JoVE Lab Manual

Cellular Processes

cellular energy from glucose breakdown

Cellular respiration is the process cells use to release usable energy from biomolecules such as sugars and lipids. Living things need a steady energy supply for growth, repair, movement, defense, and reproduction. Cells use that energy mainly by converting adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Autotrophs and heterotrophs get the molecules for respiration in different ways. Autotrophs, such as plants, algae, and photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria, build high-energy biomolecules from inorganic materials by using energy from the environment, such as sunlight. Heterotrophs cannot make those molecules from inorganic materials, so they obtain carbon compounds by eating other organisms, mainly autotrophs.

Aerobic respiration needs oxygen to make ATP. In this form of respiration, glucose can be fully broken down through a series of enzyme-driven reactions into carbon dioxide and water. Aerobic respiration has three stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

Glycolysis splits one glucose molecule into two three-carbon pyruvate molecules. It releases energy, and some of that energy is captured in ATP. The pyruvate then enters the mitochondria, where the Krebs cycle, also called the citric acid cycle, finishes breaking down the glucose and loads electrons onto carrier molecules.

The last stage is oxidative phosphorylation. In this step, electrons move through an electron transport system in the inner mitochondrial membrane. This helps build a hydrogen ion gradient, and cells use that gradient to make most of the ATP in aerobic respiration.

Some organisms live where oxygen is scarce or where other chemicals dominate the environment. Extremophiles, which are bacteria found in places such as deep ocean hydrothermal vents or underwater caves, may use inorganic acceptors like nitrate or sulfur instead of oxygen. This is called anaerobic respiration.

When oxygen is absent and cellular respiration cannot continue, cells can use fermentation. Fermentation begins with glycolysis and makes some ATP, but it does not include oxidative phosphorylation, so it produces fewer ATP molecules than aerobic respiration. In humans, lactic acid fermentation occurs in red blood cells, which lack mitochondria, and in muscles during strenuous activity. Some bacteria also use lactic acid fermentation, which is why they are used to make yogurt.

Yeast carry out alcoholic fermentation. This pathway produces ethanol and carbon dioxide as byproducts. People use it to ferment beverages and to help dough rise.

Cellular respiration and photosynthesis are linked processes that move energy and matter through ecosystems. They are direct opposites in many ways because the products of one are the reactants of the other. Photosynthesis uses sunlight to build one glucose molecule from six carbon dioxide and six water molecules and releases six oxygen molecules. Cellular respiration uses six oxygen molecules to break one glucose molecule into six carbon dioxide and six water molecules while capturing energy as ATP and heat.

Scientists can measure respiration rates with a respirometer by tracking oxygen exchange. This method depends on the Ideal Gas Law, which relates pressure, volume, temperature, and the number of gas molecules. Respirometers contain potassium hydroxide, which traps carbon dioxide as potassium carbonate. As cells use oxygen, gas volume in the system drops, and scientists can use the ideal gas equation to calculate oxygen use.

Cellular respiration matters for health because mitochondria are essential to the process. Mitochondrial myopathies are neuromuscular diseases caused by mitochondrial damage, and they mainly affect nerve and muscle cells that need a lot of energy. Many poisons also block respiration. Cyanide, for example, inhibits ATP production through oxidative phosphorylation, and some antibiotics, chemotherapeutics, statins, and anesthetics can also interfere with mitochondrial function.

Cellular Energy From Glucose Breakdown

photosynthesis

Photosynthesis: Light, Sugars, and Carbon

Photosynthesis turns sunlight into chemical energy in the form of glucose. This process powers most life on Earth by helping autotrophs, or primary producers, make food. The glucose they make can provide quick energy or be stored as starch for later use. Consumers depend on these producers for energy. Photosynthesis happens in many kinds of organisms. Cyanobacteria, some protists such as algae, and plants can all carry out this process. In eukaryotic cells, it takes place in the chloroplast.

Cellular respiration is the process cells use to release usable energy from biomolecules such as sugars and lipids. Living things need a steady energy supply for growth, repair, movement, defense, and reproduction. Cells use that energy mainly by converting adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Autotrophs and heterotrophs get the molecules for respiration in different ways. Autotrophs, such as plants, algae, and photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria, build...

cell division

Cell Cycle, Mitosis, and Meiosis

Cell division is essential for growth, repair, and reproduction in living organisms. It lets single-celled organisms create a new organism and helps multicellular organisms make new cells for development and for replacing damaged cells. In multicellular species, cell division also makes reproductive cells needed for reproduction. Before a cell divides, it must copy its genetic material and split it into two daughter cells. This process is called the cell cycle. Although the timing can vary...

transpiration

Water Movement in Plants

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enzyme activity

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Enzymes are biological catalysts that help living things run biochemical reactions faster. They lower activation energy, which is the energy needed to start a reaction. Enzymes are not used up in the process, so they can keep working again and again. Most enzymes are proteins, although some ribonucleic acid molecules also have catalytic activity. Each enzyme usually binds only one or a few specific substrates. This selectivity depends on the enzyme’s active site, which fits its substrate like...

cellular processes

Learn how cells turn glucose into ATP through aerobic and anaerobic respiration, fermentation, photosynthesis links, and respirometer measurements.

Cellular Energy From Glucose Breakdown | JoVE K12

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

Environmental Science

ecosystems-interactions-energy-and-dynamics

Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy And Dynamics

HS-LS2-4

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

Cells

Cellular processes

Tennessee Academic Standards

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

BIO1.LS1.9

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

BIO.2

BIO.2.e

new-jersey-student-learning-standards-for-science

New Jersey Student Learning Standards for Science

Life Science

HS-LS1-7

Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics

HS-LS2-5

Arizona Science Standards

HS.L2

HS.L2U1.21

Next Generation Science Standards

HS-LS2-3

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.L.18

SC.912.L.18.9

south-carolina-college-and-career-ready-science-standards

South Carolina College and Career Ready Science Standards

B-LS1-7.

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

matter-and-energy-in-organisms-and-ecosystems

Matter and Energy in Organisms and Ecosystems

HS-LS1-7.

Georgia Standards of Excellence

Botany

SBO1.

Respiration

Learn how to assemble microrespirometers, prepare manometer fluid, add KOH and cotton, and set up 25 °C and 40 °C water baths for respiration labs.

Microrespirometer Setup for Respiration Labs | JoVE K12

Measure cellular respiration in germinating seeds with microrespirometers, compare them with glass bead controls, and analyze how temperature changes oxygen consumption.

Measuring Seed Respiration with Microrespirometers | JoVE K12

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Cellular Energy From Glucose Breakdown

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