Name: Community Diversity: Measuring Biodiversity in Different Areas - Concept
Uploaded: 2019-01-29T11:04:46.000Z
Duration: 5 min 49 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Earth and Environmental Science

Earth and Human Activity

ESS.EES.5.6

Community Diversity

lab manual sub articles

Lab Manual Sub Articles

<p>An ecosystem is a community of living and non-living components that interact in an area. This can be as large as the earth itself or a forest full of plants and animals, or as small as a stomach with its array of microbial inhabitants. Ecosystem health can be measured in different ways, but one good indicator is biodiversity, a measure of the variety of biological species in an ecosystem. </p>

<p>We can evaluate biodiversity using a measure called the Shannon-Wiener Index, proposed by Claude Shannon and Norbert Wiener in the 1940s. The Shannon-Wiener Index is a unitless measurement, calculated as H. The index uses two variables: species richness, or the number of species present, indicated by K, and species evenness, or proportion of each species, indicated by PI. Species richness is the number of unique species in an ecosystem. This example has seven. Species evenness measures how species in an ecosystem are distributed. This means that an ecosystem in which the different species have similar numbers is more even than one where one or two species account for most of the organisms, like this one, relatively overrun with hares. </p>

<p>Now that we know what to measure, let&#39;s learn how to measure biodiversity. Since ecosystems can be huge, ecologists had to figure out ways to randomly sample large areas quickly. The simplest of these is the quadrat, which is a frame of fixed size, typically placed at random within a sampling site. Scientists survey the area inside the quadrat, logging the species richness and also their evenness. Using these little windows placed at multiple spots over an ecosystem, they can extrapolate their findings to give diversity estimates for the entire study area. But although this technique allows for a manageable assessment of a large area, it&#39;s not perfect. Random placement of quadrants may miss individuals, resulting in under-representation of species and incorrectly low biodiversity estimates. </p>

<p>This limitation means that some communities, especially patchy or non-uniform ones, are better sampled by a more structured approach. Here, our meadow borders the forest and, in reality, consists of different habitat patches. To cover this community fairly, we can divide the landscape into core habitats and importantly, edge habitats. Often, edge areas have more biodiversity because species from both habitat types might live there. But this might get missed in traditional random sampling. Instead, to measure the biodiversity across a community like this, a good strategy may be to first sample the core areas randomly using quadrats. The data collected can then be used to calculate the H value for each core habitat. Next, a transect or sampling line can be laid across each core habitat, extending over into the edge area. Species richness and evenness can then be recorded using quadrats placed at set points along these lines. Now using the Shannon-Wiener formula, the diversity index can be calculated for each distance along the transect, and these can be compared. An area with a greater H value is generally more diverse than one with a lower H. This combined random quadrat and transect technique gives a versatile and more fair assessment of how the different habitats within the same community compare in terms of diversity. </p>

<p>In addition to species measures, scientists may also take measures of the chemical components of an ecosystem to assess its health. For example, they might check for pollution, or examine soil quality by measuring the nutrients present. This information can also be useful to help explain changes in patterns of biodiversity in different regions of a community. So, in our example, if the meadow has lower quality soil than the forest and the edge, it might support less species. </p>

<p>In this lab, you&#39;ll measure biodiversity and soil quality in two different core regions, and then examine how biodiversity is affected along an edge habitat.</p>


community diversity

<p>Populations do not live in isolation; thus, every population interacts with others in certain ways. These interactions give rise to a network of populations. Hence, an ecological community is composed of such population networks of various species interacting with each other within the same area. These biological, or biotic, components may also closely interact with non-living, or abiotic, components, forming an ecosystem. Ecosystems may be as small as the microbial communities inside the human digestive tract, structured by the pH and nutrients of their environment, or as large as a forest containing trees and insects closely linked through the carbon cycle. Ecologists and conservationists have become increasingly interested in ecosystems as humans continue to make major changes to them globally through urbanization and climate change. Alterations to any single component of an ecosystem can affect other closely-linked components, potentially causing drastic changes to the entire system. For these reasons, quantifying and predicting the current and future &#8220;health&#8221; of ecosystems has become a major topic of ecological research.</p>

<h4>Biodiversity</h4>

<p>The term &#8220;ecosystem health&#8221; is metaphorical because and it is difficult to compare the health of very different ecosystems and there is no single value that can be used to quantify how healthy an ecosystem is. For example, deserts and forests have very different species diversities but one is not necessarily healthier than the other. Therefore, multiple metrics have been formulated to represent the health of an ecosystem, and their use depends on the goals of the study. Hence, &#8220;ecosystem health&#8221; may refer to how valuable an ecosystem is to humans. For example, the value of ecosystem services like carbon sequestration by trees or pollination by bees are used to quantify the health of ecosystems. Other metrics may measure the number of rare species found in an ecosystem, how resistant an ecosystem is to fire, or some other measurements of biotic and abiotic factors. For ecologists, one very popular health measure is that of biological diversity, or &#8220;biodiversity.&#8221; Biodiversity is a measure of the variety of biological species found in an area and can be calculated using the Shannon-Wiener biodiversity index.</p>

<p>The Shannon-Wiener Index requires two measurements from a local community: species richness and evenness. Species richness is the total number of distinct species within a local community. An area with no species present, such as a freshly paved parking lot, would have a richness value of 0. Rainforests, known for supporting some of the most diverse communities on Earth, have a much greater species richness. While having many species generally coincides with having a diverse and healthy ecosystem, the evenness also needs to be considered. For instance, when one species dominates the area while the others are very rare, the biodiversity in this area is lower than in an area with species of equal abundance. Therefore, areas with many species that are relatively equal in abundance have the highest scores of biodiversity.</p>

<p>Shannon-Wiener is not the only measure of ecosystem biodiversity and health. For example, a popular index, named the EPT index, is used to determine water quality in river systems by assigning values of healthiness to individual organisms. More specifically, this index considers three pollutant-sensitive orders of invertebrates found in rivers, Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Plecoptera (stoneflies), and Trichoptera (caddisflies). The presence of these pollutant-intolerant species in a waterway is used as an indication of good water quality and the ecosystem in question is considered to be healthy.</p>

<p>Often, ecologically-relevant areas are too large to be sampled in entirety. To resolve this problem, ecologists sample multiple smaller plots throughout the study area using quadrats, which are small frames of a predetermined size placed at points throughout the study site, in which a researcher identifies and records all individuals of species of interest. When enough quadrat samples are considered, scientists can extrapolate to make accurate estimates of ecological communities.</p>

<h4>Impacts of Ecological Changes</h4>

<p>Most natural ecological changes happen over an extended time scale. In addition, humans continue to alter ecosystems. To assess long-term changes in ecosystems, scientists have set up Long Term Ecological Research sites (LTERs). One of the longest running LTERs is the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest located in New Hampshire, United States. This site and others have increased knowledge about ecosystem scale patterns resulting from deforestation, changes to hydrological regimes, and other long-term ecological disturbances<sup>1</sup>.</p>

<p>When a major change occurs very rapidly, it is called an ecological disturbance. Fires, hurricanes, and floods are examples of ecological disturbances. Disturbances can alter an ecosystem by wiping out nutrients and changing the composition of the biological community. After a disturbance, the most resistant and resilient species are favored for survival. A resistant species or community is one that can survive major disturbances with minimal detriments and quickly recover from a disturbance, like dandelions after a lawn is mowed. Sampling a site for many years before and after disturbances is unfeasible, but comparing different areas with different disturbance regimes offers a partial solution to this problem.</p>

<p>Disturbed habitats are usually patchy; therefore, using randomly-placed quadrats might result in underrepresentation of species and incorrect biodiversity estimates. For this reason, it is essential to consider the surroundings and some of the characteristics of the habitat that is being studied. This is accomplished in landscape ecology by studying both core and edge habitats. A core habitat is located centrally within a patch, surrounded by the same type of habitat. In contrast, an edge habitat, also known as boundary habitat, borders a different habitat type. Edge habitats, such as where a forest habitat meets a meadow habitat, may have increased biodiversity because species from both habitat types may be found in them. Such differences in biodiversity at the edges of habitats are called edge effects. To assess these transitional areas, ecologists use paths along habitats, called transects, and record the biodiversity of small sampling sites at set intervals along the path. However, not all habitats will have edge effects and sometimes edge species are invasive and can grow in a wider range of habitats, thus not be indicative of a &#8220;healthy&#8221; ecosystem.</p>

<p>In addition to species measures scientists may also take measures of the chemical components of an ecosystem to assess its health. For example, they might check for pollution, or examine soil quality by measuring the nutrients present. This information can also be useful to help explain changes in patterns of biodiversity in different regions of a community. There are also many variables including temperature, precipitation over a certain time frame, and functional traits of the species, that would be hard to measure and would require advanced statistical analyses. Ecologists are constantly working on new ways to record these variables across greater scales of time and space. This has given way to new methods such as remote sensing of ecosystems, in which satellite imagery is used to estimate variables of interest across the entire globe<sup>2</sup>. These data require the use of multivariate statistics and other complex mathematical tools that are continually being developed.</p>

<p>As the human populations continue to grow and alter ecosystems worldwide, scientists and concerned citizens work towards conserving and preserving threatened ecosystems. One way to restore heavily altered ecosystems is through bioremediation, which involves the release of biological organisms, usually microorganisms, to break down pollutants and restore favorable traits to an ecosystem<sup>3</sup>. One example of this is the release of microorganisms in wastewater to break down pollution and restore water to a habitable condition for fish<sup>4</sup>. Therefore, inventive ways of restoring ecosystems will become increasingly important to remediate human effects on ecosystems.</p>

<h4>References</h4>

<ol class="references">
	<li><strong>Likens, Gene E.</strong> Fifty years of continuous precipitation and stream chemistry data from the Hubbard Brook ecosystem study (1963&#8211;2013). <em>Ecology. </em>Vol. 98 , 8: 2224.</li>
	<li><strong>Zhaoqin Li, Dandan Xu, Xulin Guo.</strong> Remote Sensing of Ecosystem Health: Opportunities, Challenges, and Future Perspectives. <em>Sensors (Basel). </em>2014, Vols. 14(11): 21117&#8211;21139.</li>
	<li><strong>Garbisu, Itziar Alkorta Lur Epelde Carlos.</strong> Environmental parameters altered by climate change affect the activity of soil microorganisms involved in bioremediation. <em>FEMS Microbiology Letters. </em>2017, Vol. 364, 19.</li>
	<li><strong>P. Padmavathi, K. Sunitha, K. Veeraiah.</strong> Efficacy of probiotics in improving water quality and bacterial flora in fish ponds. <em>Afr. J. Microbiol. Res. </em>2012, 6(49). 7471-7478.</li>
</ol>


Community Diversity: Measuring Biodiversity in Different Areas - Concept

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Learn how ecologists measure ecosystem health with biodiversity, quadrats, EPT index, disturbance studies, remote sensing, and bioremediation.

Measuring Ecosystem Health | JoVE K12

ESS.EES.6.1

ESS.EES.6.3

Earth's Systems

ESS.EES.4.1

ESS.EES.4.2

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

Earth Science

Human Sustainability

HS-ESS3-3

HS-ESS3-4

Environmental Science

Resources And Resource Management

HS-EVS1-1

ecosystems-interactions-energy-and-dynamics

Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy And Dynamics

HS-LS2-1

HS-LS2-6

HS-LS2-7

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

ES.8

ES.8.b

Alabama Course of Study Science

Unity and Diversity

9-12.EVS.2.3.a

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

Life Science

interdependent-relationships-in-ecosystems

Interdependent Relationships in Ecosystems

HS-LS2-2.

HS-LS2-7.

Georgia Standards of Excellence

SEC1.

SEC1.a

Botany

SBO1.

coevolution-plant-morphological-anatomical-structures-with-animals-ie

Coevolution of plant morphological and anatomical structures with animals (i.e., pollination), Rhizobium (i.e., nitrogen fixation), and Mycorrhiza (i.e., fungi in rhizosphere).

Prepare two field sites, set up classroom tools, and organize software for a high school community diversity lab with soil health activities.

Field Site Prep for Diversity Sampling | JoVE K12

Compare biodiversity in disturbed and undisturbed habitats, sample along a transect, test soil pH and nutrients, and calculate Shannon-Weiner diversity in Excel.

Measuring Habitat Biodiversity in the Field | JoVE K12

<ul><li><a href="#" data-time="0.0">Measuring Biodiversity in Areas with Different Disturbance Regimes
</a></li><li><a href="#" data-time="172">Measuring Biodiversity Along a Transect
</a></li><li><a href="#" data-time="280">Processing the Soil Samples
</a></li><li><a href="#" data-time="406">Results
</a></li></ul>

<ol class="note-items"><li data-note-item="1" data-parent-collapse="">Measuring Biodiversity in Areas with Different Disturbance Regimes
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="1-1"><div class="lab-step">NOTE: In this experiment, you will compare the biodiversity in a less disturbed area against a more highly disturbed area. HYPOTHESES: The experimental hypothesis could be that a less disturbed area will contain a greater diversity of species than a highly disturbed area. The null hypothesis could be that there will be no difference in diversity between less disturbed and highly disturbed areas. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-2"><div class="lab-step">To begin, divide into groups of 2-4 and collect a hula hoop, ball, measuring tape, set of printed tables, 10 utility flags, and an ID guide from the front of the class.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-3"><div class="lab-step">Additionally, collect a shovel and 10 collecting bottles for the soil sampling exercise.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-4"><div class="lab-step">Once in the field, your instructor will show you the two habitats you will study - choose one habitat to begin.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-5"><div class="lab-step">Place one flag in each of four corners to form a rectangular sampling area.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-6"><div class="lab-step">Measure the length and width of the sampling area in meters, and then multiply the two numbers to determine the area.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-7"><div class="lab-step">Standing in the middle of the sampling area, throw a tennis ball into the air, and then Mark the location where it lands with a flag.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-8"><div class="lab-step">Repeat this random throw four additional times to determine all five of your random sampling points.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-9"><div class="lab-step">Keeping your flag at the center, place a hula hoop around it. The area within the hula hoop is a quadrat.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-10"><div class="lab-step">Identify all of the different species in the quadrat and record them as species A, B, and so on in Table 1, provided by your instructor.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-11"><div class="lab-step">Once all of the plants have been recorded, use a shovel to collect one cup of soil from each of the sites and put the samples bottles labeled with your names and the site name and quadrat number.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-12"><div class="lab-step">Repeat the plant identification and soil sampling for the remaining four quadrats in the first habitat, recording your observations in Table 1.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-13"><div class="lab-step">Once you have completed recording in the first habitat, move on to the second field, again marking out a rectangular sampling area.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-14"><div class="lab-step">Repeat the random placement of quadrats using the tennis ball, and then record the species present in each quadrat in Table 2. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-15"><div class="lab-step">Finally, collect one cup of soil from each of the disturbed habitats&#39; quadrats, for a total of five cups from the disturbed and five cups from the undisturbed habitats.
</div></li></ul></li><li data-note-item="2" data-parent-collapse="">Measuring Biodiversity Along a Transect
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="2-1"><div class="lab-step">NOTE: The next part of the study will test for edge effects, or a change along a gradient from where one ecosystem type meets another to the core habitat of the ecosystem. HYPOTHESES: The experimental hypothesis is that there will be a greater diversity of species closer to the edge of the ecosystem than in the center, or core, of the ecosystem. The null hypothesis is that there is no change in diversity along the transect from edge to core habitat.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-2"><div class="lab-step">Place a flag at the perimeter of the field where it meets another habitat, like a forest or parking lot.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-3"><div class="lab-step">Extend a tape measure towards the center of the field, perpendicular to the edge of the field. This will be the transect.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-4"><div class="lab-step">Place a flag at the zero meter of the transect (the edge of the other habitat) then place additional flags at 10 m, 20 m, 30 m, and 40 m into the core of the habitat for a total of five flagged locations.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-5"><div class="lab-step">Starting at the 0 m point along the transect, place the hula hoop at the flagged location. Record the species present in the quadrat in Table 4.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-6"><div class="lab-step">Now repeat the quadrant placement and species recording at the 10 m, 20 m, 30 m, and 40 m marks.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-7"><div class="lab-step">Next, place two more transects from different starting points at the perimeter of the field extending into the core area.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-8"><div class="lab-step">Mark the 10-meter points along these transects, and again use these as markers to place quadrats. Record the species found in each of these quadrats in Table 4.
</div></li></ul></li><li data-note-item="3" data-parent-collapse="">Processing the Soil Samples
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="3-1"><div class="lab-step">HYPOTHESES: The experimental hypothesis is that the two landscapes under different disturbance regimes will differ in their soil composition and pH. The null hypothesis is that there will be no difference in the soil composition or pH between the two sites. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-2"><div class="lab-step">To begin, remove soil from one bottle of the first site sampled and fill the pH color compartment of the soil sample kit to the soil fill line.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-3"><div class="lab-step">Pour the pH test capsule into the test chamber, then fill the capsule with distilled water until it reaches the water fill line.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-4"><div class="lab-step">Place the cap on the compartment and shake it.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-5"><div class="lab-step">Allow the color to develop for about a minute, and then compare the soil to the color chart to determine the pH.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-6"><div class="lab-step">Repeat the pH analysis for the second sampled site, filling out Table 3 for the recorded pH.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-7"><div class="lab-step">To process the soil samples for nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, remove 20 mL of soil from the bottle of the first site sampled.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-8"><div class="lab-step">Place the soil in a clean container with 100 mL of distilled water.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-9"><div class="lab-step">Repeat this process for the second site, labeling each container, and then allow them to sit for one hour.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-10"><div class="lab-step">After one hour, use a dropper to fill each of the nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium comparators to the fill line with solution from the first sampled site.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-11"><div class="lab-step">Add the appropriate capsule to each of the comparators for each chemical test.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-12"><div class="lab-step">Cap and shake the comparators thoroughly, and then compare the solution in the test chamber to the color chart, recording the results as the appropriate number on the scale into Table 3.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-13"><div class="lab-step">Repeat the nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium tests for each of the sampled sites. NOTE: Rinse the comparator thoroughly between samples
</div></li></ul></li><li data-note-item="4" data-parent-collapse="">Results
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="4-1"><div class="lab-step">To calculate the Shannon-Weiner Diversity for each of the observed sites, first open a new Excel spreadsheet.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-2"><div class="lab-step">Label cell A1 'species name', and cell B1 'total count'.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-3"><div class="lab-step">Starting from the second row and in column A, fill in the sheet for each species found in the first site, using the data recorded in Table 1.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-4"><div class="lab-step">Calculate the total number of each species found in the entire sampling effort and record this in the B column of the Excel spreadsheet.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-5"><div class="lab-step">Now, label cell G1 'total count of all species', and in cell H1, write a formula, or highlight the appropriate cells to sum all of the count values entered in column B: = SUM(B2: BX)
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-6"><div class="lab-step">Label cell C1 'proportion of each species' and in cell C2, type the formula for the proportion of the total of each species at the site. = B2/H$1
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-7"><div class="lab-step">Drag this formula down for each row of data represented in column B.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-8"><div class="lab-step">Label cell D1 'natural log proportion of species' and in cell D2, type the formula for the natural log of the proportion of species at the site. =LN(C2)
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-9"><div class="lab-step">Drag this formula down for each row of data represented in column C.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-10"><div class="lab-step">Add the formula into cell E1 for the proportion of species multiplied by the natural log of the proportion of species: ps* ln ps
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-11"><div class="lab-step">In cell E2, type the formula multiplying the proportion of species by the natural log of the proportion of species at each site, and then drag this formula down for each row of data represented in column D. = C2 * D2 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-12"><div class="lab-step">Label cell G2 as 'sum of ps * ln ps', and then, in cell H2, type a formula summing all of the values in column E. = SUM(E3 - EX) 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-13"><div class="lab-step">Label cell G3 'Shannon-Weiner Index', and in cell H3, enter the formula for the Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index. = (EXP - 1 * H2) NOTE: This is the calculated Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index for the first sampled site, and will be used for comparison between the two sites.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-14"><div class="lab-step">Repeat the data analysis in a new sheet using the data collected for the second site, which was recorded in Table 2. NOTE: Areas with greater index values are considered to have greater species diversity. Note whether you see differences between your sites.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-15"><div class="lab-step">Repeat the Shannon-Weiner Diversity calculations using a total count of all the species at each distance along the transect, then create a table of all of these values in a new Excel sheet.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-16"><div class="lab-step">Click on the Data tab in Excel, and then on the 'Data Analysis' button.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-17"><div class="lab-step">Select 'Regression' and click 'Okay'.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-18"><div class="lab-step">For the Input Y Range, highlight the Shannon-Weiner Diversity values, and for the Input X range, highlight the distance values.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-19"><div class="lab-step">Select an output location for the regression results and click 'Okay'.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-20"><div class="lab-step">Check the P-value box in the intercept row to see if there is a significant correlation between distance from edge to core habitat and biodiversity. NOTE: A value of less than 0.05 rejects the null hypothesis of no change in diversity along the transect, while a value greater than 0.05 does not reject the null hypothesis.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-21"><div class="lab-step">Next, to perform t-tests for determining soil composition differences between sites, open a new Excel spreadsheet.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-22"><div class="lab-step">In cell A1, type 'Site 1:pH', and in cell B1, type 'Site 2:pH'.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-23"><div class="lab-step">Fill in cells A2 through A6 and cells B2 through B6 with the soil pH collected in the disturbed and undisturbed sites, respectively.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-24"><div class="lab-step">Click the Data tab in Excel and then select 'Data Analysis'.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-25"><div class="lab-step">Now scroll down and select 't-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances' and select 'Okay'.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-26"><div class="lab-step">Click the drop down next to Variable 1 Range and highlight cells A2 through A6 in the spreadsheet, then click the dropdown next to Variable 2 Range and highlight cells B2 through B6 in the spreadsheet.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-27"><div class="lab-step">In the box for hypothesized mean difference, type zero as our null hypothesis. This means that there is no difference between the two disturbance regimes.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-28"><div class="lab-step">Leave the Labels box unchecked and set the alpha value to 0.05.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-29"><div class="lab-step">Select 'Output Range', and in the box, click an empty space in the spreadsheet.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-30"><div class="lab-step">Click 'Okay'. A table of t-Test results should be outputted in the spreadsheet.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-31"><div class="lab-step">The relevant data are the means for each of the sites and the alpha value. If this second value is less than our alpha value of 0.05, we can reject the null hypothesis that there is no difference in pH between the two sites, and the hypothesis that disturbed versus undisturbed sites differ in their pH value would gain support. If this value is greater than 0.05, however, we may not reject our null hypothesis.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-32"><div class="lab-step">Repeat this analysis for each of the other three soil variables, creating a new spreadsheet for each of the phosphorus, potassium, and nitrogen elements. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="4-33"><div class="lab-step">Note whether your pH and nutrient level results were different in each condition, and discuss with your group how this might affect the community and diversity in the different sites.
</div></li></ul></li></ol>

Community Diversity: Measuring Biodiversity in Different Areas - Procedure

Measuring Biodiversity in Areas with Different Disturbance Regimes
ExpandNOTE: In this experiment, you will compare the biodiversity in a less disturbed ...

<p>In this experiment, you will compare the biodiversity in a less disturbed area against a more highly disturbed area. The experimental hypothesis could be that a less disturbed area will contain a greater diversity of species than a highly disturbed area. The null hypothesis could be that there will be no difference in diversity between less disturbed and highly disturbed areas.</p><p>To begin, divide into groups of four and collect a hula hoop, ball, measuring tape, set of printed tables, 10 utility flags, and an ID guide from the front of the class. You should also collect a shovel and 10 collecting bottles for the soil sampling exercise and bring these outside, too. Once in the field, your instructor will show you the two habitats you will study.</p><p>Choose one habitat to begin and place one flag in four corners to form a rectangular sampling area. Measure the length and width of the sampling area in meters, and then multiply the two numbers to determine the area. Now, standing in the middle of the sampling area, throw a tennis ball into the air.</p><p>Mark the location where it lands with a flag. Repeat this four more times to determine all five of your random sampling points. Keeping your flag at the center, place a hula hoop around it.</p><p>The area within the hula hoop is a quadrat. Then, identify all of the different species in the quadrat and record them as species A, B, and so on in table one. Once all of the plants have been recorded, use a shovel to collect one cup of soil from each of the sites and put the samples in labeled bottles.</p><p>Be sure to label the bottle with your names and the site name and quadrat number. Repeat the plant identification and soil sampling for the remaining four quadrats in the first habitat, recording your observations in table one. Once you have completed recording in the first habitat, move on to the second field, again marking out a rectangular sampling area.</p><p>Repeat the random placement of quadrats using the tennis ball, and then record the species present in each quadrat in table two. Finally, collect one cup of soil from each of the disturbed habitats'quadrats, for a total of five cups from the disturbed and five cups from the undisturbed habitats. The next part of the study will test for edge effects, or a change along a gradient from where one ecosystem type meets another to the core habitat of the ecosystem.</p><p>The experimental hypothesis is that there will be a greater diversity of species closer to the edge of the ecosystem than in the center, or core, of the ecosystem. The null hypothesis is that there is no change in diversity along the transect from edge to core habitat. Place a flag at the perimeter of the field where it meets another habitat, like a forest or parking lot.</p><p>Extend a tape measure towards the center of the field, perpendicular to the edge of the field. This will be your transect. Place a flag at the zero meter of the transect, the edge of the other habitat, then place additional flags at 10 meters, 20 meters, 30 meters, and 40 meters into the core of the habitat for a total of five flagged locations.</p><p>Starting at the zero meter point along the transect, place the hula hoop at the flagged location. Record the species present in the quadrat in table four. Then repeat the quadrant placement and species recording at the 10 meter, 20 meter, 30 meter, and 40 meter marks.</p><p>Next, place two more transects from different starting points at the perimeter of the field extending into the core area. Mark the 10 meter points along these transects, and again use these as markers to place quadrats. Record the species found in each of these quadrats in table four.</p><p>The next step is to process the soil samples. The experimental hypothesis is that the two landscapes under different disturbance regimes will differ in their soil composition and pH. The null hypothesis is that there will be no difference in the soil composition or pH between the two sites.</p><p>To begin, remove soil from one bottle of the first site sampled and fill the pH color compartment of the soil sample kit to the soil fill line. Pour the pH test capsule into the test chamber, then fill the capsule with distilled water until it reaches the water fill line. Place the cap on the compartment and shake it.</p><p>Allow the color to develop for about a minute, and then compare the soil to the color chart to determine the pH. Repeat the pH analysis for the second sampled site, filling out table three for the recorded pH. To process the soil samples for nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, remove 20 milliliters of soil from the bottle of the first site sampled.</p><p>Place the soil in a clean container with 100 milliliters of distilled water. Repeat this process for the second site, labeling each container, and then allow them to sit for one hour. After one hour, use a dropper to fill each of the nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium comparators to the fill line with solution from the first sampled site.</p><p>Add the appropriate capsule to each of the comparators for each chemical test. Cap and shake the comparators thoroughly, and then compare the solution in the test chamber to the color chart, recording the results as the appropriate number on the scale into table three. Repeat the nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium tests for each of the sampled sites.</p><p>To calculate the Shannon-Weiner Diversity for each of the observed sites, first open a new Excel spreadsheet. Label cell A1 species name, and cell B1 total count. Starting from the second row and in column A, fill in the sheet for each species found in the first site, using the data recorded in table one.</p><p>Calculate the total number of each species found in the entire sampling effort and record this in the B column of the Excel spreadsheet. Now, label cell G1 total count of all species, and in cell H1, write a formula to sum all of the count values entered in column B.Label cell C1 proportion of each species and in cell C2, type the formula for the proportion of the total of each species at the site. Drag this formula down for each row of data represented in column B.Label cell D1 natural log proportion of species and in cell D2, type the formula for the natural log of the proportion of species at the site.</p><p>Drag this formula down for each row of data represented in column C.Label cell E1 ps star ln ps, short for proportion of species multiplied by the natural log of the proportion of species. In cell E2, type the formula multiplying the proportion of species by the natural log of the proportion of species at each site, and then drag this formula down for each row of data represented in column D.Label cell G2 sum of ps star ln ps, and in cell H2, type a formula summing all of the values in column E.Label cell G3 Shannon-Weiner Index, and in cell H3, enter the formula for the Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index. This is the calculated Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index for the first sampled site, and will be used for comparison between the two sites.</p><p>Repeat the data analysis in a new sheet using the data collected for the second site, which was recorded in table two. Areas with greater index values are considered to have greater species diversity. Do you see differences between your sites?</p><p>Repeat the Shannon-Weiner Diversity calculations using a total count of all the species at each distance along the transect, then create a table similar to figure two in a new Excel sheet. Click on the Data tab in Excel, and then on the Data Analysis button. Select Regression and click Okay.</p><p>For the Input Y Range, highlight the Shannon-Weiner Diversity values, and for the Input X range, highlight the distance values. Select an output location for the regression results and click Okay. Check the P value box in the intercept row to see if there is a significant correlation between distance from edge to core habitat and biodiversity.</p><p>A value of less than 0.05 rejects the null hypothesis of no change in diversity along the transect, while a value greater than 0.05 does not reject the null hypothesis. Next, to perform t-tests for determining soil composition differences between sites, open a new Excel spreadsheet. In cell A1, type site 1:pH, and in cell B1, type site 2:pH.</p><p>Fill in cells A2 through A6 and cells B2 through B6 with the soil pH collected in the disturbed and undisturbed sites, respectively. Click the Data tab in Excel and then select Data Analysis. Now scroll down and select t-Test:Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances and select Okay.</p><p>Click the drop down next to Variable 1 Range and highlight cells A2 through A6 in the spreadsheet, Then click the dropdown next to Variable 2 Range and highlight cells B2 through B6 in the spreadsheet. In the box for hypothesized mean difference, type zero as our null hypothesis. This means that there is no difference between the two disturbance regimes.</p><p>Leave the Labels box unchecked and set the alpha value to 0.05. Select Output Range, and in the box, click an empty space in the spreadsheet. Click Okay.</p><p>A table of t-Test results should be outputted in the spreadsheet. The relevant data are the means for each of the sites and the alpha value. If this second value is less than our alpha value of 0.05, we can reject the null hypothesis that there is no difference in pH between the two sites, and the hypothesis that disturbed versus undisturbed sites differ in their pH value would gain support.</p><p>If this value is greater than 0.05, however, we may not reject our null hypothesis. Repeat this analysis for each of the other three soil variables, creating a new spreadsheet for each of the phosphorus, potassium, and nitrogen elements. Did your results for these nutrients and the pH allow you to reject the null hypothesis?</p><p>Were the levels of nutrients different in each condition? What might this tell you?</p>

<ul><li><a href="#" data-time="0.0">Setting up for the Lab and Choosing Field Sites
</a></li></ul>

<ol class="note-items"><li data-note-item="1" data-parent-collapse="">Setting up for the Lab and Choosing Field Sites
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="1-1"><div class="lab-step">Before the experiment, first ensure that the student computers have Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets installed.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-2"><div class="lab-step">If using Excel, make sure the data analysis tool pack is loaded.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-3"><div class="lab-step">Next, you will need to identify the two fields where the students will take measurements. Both fields should ideally have lengths in any direction of at least 30 meters. One field should be a shrubby or weedy field that has not been mowed recently. The second field should be mowed and consist of more grassy vegetation.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-4"><div class="lab-step">In the lab, place the hula hoops, balls, measuring tape, printed tables, and ID guides for the diversity exercise on a desk at the front of the class. <a href="https://www.jove.com/CDNSource/lm/labs/31/Tables_1-5_community_diversity.zip" style="display:block;margin:20px;" target="_blank">Click Here to download Tables 1-5</a>
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-5"><div class="lab-step">Alongside these, place the shovels and collection materials for the soil health activity.
</div></li></ul></li></ol>

<div class="section-question"><h4 class="question-sect">What is an ecological community?</h4><p>An ecological community is composed of population networks of various species interacting with each other within the same area. 
</p></div><div class="section-question"><h4 class="question-sect">How do ecologists calculate the biodiversity in a local community?</h4><p>Biodiversity is a measure of the variety of biological species found in an area and can be calculated using the Shannon-Wiener biodiversity index, which requires two measurements from the local community: species richness and evenness. The richness of an ecosystem is the total number of distinct species within a local community. Evenness refers to the equality of the proportion of each species within an area or community. 
</p></div><div class="section-question"><h4 class="question-sect">How do ecologists count the species in an ecological system?</h4><p>Ecologists use sampling tools called quadrats. A quadrat is simply a frame with a known internal area. They may also systematically sample by using transect tapes. Transects are stretched across the field and then quadrats are placed along the transect at regular intervals. This method is semi-random and ensures ample coverage of sampling across the entire field to estimate its biodiversity. 
</p></div><div class="section-question"><h4 class="question-sect">What are the core and edge habitats?</h4><p>A core habitat is located centrally within a patch, surrounded by the same type of habitat. In contrast, an edge habitat, also known as boundary habitat, borders a different habitat type. 
</p></div><div class="section-question"><h4 class="question-sect">What is bioremediation?</h4><p>Bioremediation involves the release of biological organisms, usually microorganisms, to break down pollutants and restore favorable traits to an ecosystem.  
</p></div>

Community Diversity: Measuring Biodiversity in Different Areas - Prep

Setting up for the Lab and Choosing Field Sites
ExpandBefore the experiment, first ensure that the student computers have Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets ...

<p>Before the experiment, first ensure that the student computers have Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets installed. If using Excel, make sure the data analysis tool pack is loaded. Next, you will need to identify the two fields where the students will take measurements.</p><p>Both fields should ideally have lengths in any direction of at least 30 meters. One field should be a shrubby or weedy field that has not been mowed recently. The second field should be mowed and consist of more grassy vegitation.</p><p>Back in the lab, place the hula hoops, balls, measuring tape, printed tables, and ID guides for the diversity exercise on a desk at the front of the class. Then next to these, place the shovels and collection materials for the soil health activity. Please take time to review the materials list and the student protocol video to be fully prepped for the lab.</p>

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Community Diversity

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