Name: electron orbitals and energy levels
Uploaded: 2026-06-01T06:27:59.142Z
Duration: 1 min 18 s
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Chemistry

Matter and Its Interactions

CHEM1.PS1.11

Electron Orbital Model

Atomic orbitals are three-dimensional regions around the nucleus where an electron is most likely to be found.The first energy level is nearest to the nucleus and has the lowest energy. It contains a single spherical s orbital.The second energy level contains four orbitals: one lower-energy 2s orbital and three higher-energy 2p orbitals. Each p orbital is dumbbell-shaped and points along the x-, y-, or z-axis.The third energy level, along with s and p orbitals, also includes five d orbitals. Four of the 3d orbitals have a cloverleaf shape, while the fifth has two lobes and a ring around the center.In an orbital diagram, a box represents an orbital, and arrows represent electrons. Each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons with only opposite spins: one spin-up and one spin-down.Electrons in the ground state fill atomic orbitals from lowest to highest energy to reach the most stable configuration. For example, sodium has 11 electrons. Two electrons with opposite spins fill the 1s orbital first. Similarly, two electrons fill the 2s orbital. Next, one electron enters each of the three 2p orbitals with the same spin. After that, electrons pair with opposite spins until all three 2p orbitals are filled. Finally, one electron enters the 3s orbital.

electron orbital model

Orbitals are the areas outside of the atomic nucleus where electrons are most likely to reside. They are characterized by different energy levels, shapes, and three-dimensional orientations. The location of electrons is described most generally by a shell or principal energy level, then by a subshell within each shell, and finally, by individual orbitals found within the subshells.The first shell is closest to the nucleus, and it has only one subshell with a single spherical orbital called the 1s orbital. This orbital can hold two electrons. The next shell holds eight total electrons: two in the spherical 2s orbital and two in each of the three dumbbell-shaped 2p orbitals. The higher energy levels are the outermost orbitals&#x2014;those found in the d and f subshells&#x2014; that take on more complex shapes. A total of 10 electrons can fit within the five d orbitals, and 14 total electrons fit within the seven f orbitals. The s subshell has the lowest amount of energy. Electrons in the p subshell have higher energy, followed by the d and f subshell if they are present. Orbital diagrams can be used to visualize the location and relative energy levels of each electron in an atom.The concept of orbitals was introduced by the Bohr Model. In 1913, Niels Bohr was able to experimentally determine how much energy was gained and lost when electrons changed orbitals in an atom of hydrogen and other ions with a single electron. Combining the results of his experiments with prior knowledge of a positively-charged nucleus from the work of Ernest Rutherford, Bohr developed the first model of electron orbitals. When electrons gain energy, they enter an excited state and jump to higher orbitals. Energy can be added to electrons in the form of heat or light, and when they lose that energy rapidly, they fall back from the higher orbital and emit a particle of light called a photon. The color of the emitted photon corresponds to a specific amount of energy that can be quantified by a spectroscope.Bohr&#x27;s model of electron orbitals assumed that electrons orbited the nucleus in fixed circular paths. While his experiments were accurate for hydrogen and hydrogen-like ions with a single electron, he could not predict the electron configurations of other elements. In 1926, Erwin Schr&#xF6;dinger expanded Bohr&#x27;s model of energy levels and developed the model of atomic orbitals that is still accepted today. Schr&#xF6;dinger took a number of other discoveries into account regarding the physical behavior of electrons that were made by scientists in the early 1920s. His quantum mechanical model accurately predicts the electron configurations of elements with multiple electrons. One fundamental change in Schr&#xF6;dinger&#x27;s model is the assumption that electrons travel in a wave motion that is affected by the positive charge of the nucleus. Because of this, the orbitals that we speak of today are cloud-like areas where electrons are most likely to be found rather than fixed circular paths as Bohr proposed.

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KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

electron orbitals and energy levels

Electron orbitals show where electrons are most likely to be found around the atomic nucleus. They also help explain energy levels, orbital shapes, and three-dimensional orientation. In an atom, electron location is described first by a shell, or principal energy level. It is then described by a subshell within that shell and by the individual orbitals inside each subshell.

The first shell is closest to the nucleus. It has only one subshell and one spherical orbital, called the 1s orbital. That orbital can hold two electrons. The next shell can hold eight electrons in total. It contains two electrons in the spherical 2s orbital and two electrons in each of the three dumbbell-shaped 2p orbitals.

Higher energy levels include the d and f subshells. These orbitals are farther from the nucleus and have more complex shapes. The five d orbitals can hold 10 electrons in total. The seven f orbitals can hold 14 electrons in total. In order of energy, the s subshell has the lowest energy. The p subshell is higher, followed by the d and then the f subshell if those are present.

Orbital diagrams are useful for showing where each electron is and how its energy compares with the others. The idea of orbitals began with the Bohr model. In 1913, Niels Bohr measured how much energy was gained and lost when electrons changed orbitals in hydrogen and other ions with one electron. Using those results and Ernest Rutherford's work on the positively charged nucleus, Bohr developed the first model of electron orbitals.

When electrons gain energy, they move into an excited state and jump to higher orbitals. That energy can come from heat or light. When the electrons lose energy quickly, they fall back to lower orbitals and emit a photon, which is a particle of light. The color of the photon matches a specific amount of energy, and a spectroscope can measure that energy.

Bohr's model assumed that electrons moved in fixed circular paths around the nucleus. That idea worked well for hydrogen and hydrogen-like ions with one electron. However, it could not predict the electron configurations of other elements. In 1926, Erwin Schrödinger expanded Bohr's energy-level model and created the atomic orbital model used today. He used discoveries from the early 1920s about how electrons behave to build a quantum mechanical model that works for elements with multiple electrons.

Schrödinger's model changed the idea of electron motion. It treats electrons as traveling in a wave motion affected by the positive nucleus. Because of this, orbitals are described as cloud-like regions where electrons are most likely to be found, not as fixed circular paths.

Electron Orbitals and Energy Levels

the periodic table and organismal elements

the-periodic-table-and-organismal-elements

Periodic Table Basics for Living Things

The periodic table helps explain which elements living things need and how those elements are related. Elements are the smallest units of matter that cannot be broken down further by chemical processes. There are 118 known elements, but not all occur naturally, and even fewer are essential for life. Living matter is made mostly of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen. Together, these elements make up most of the human body and are also found in all life on Earth. Smaller amounts of calcium,...

atomic structure

Atoms and Their Subatomic Particles

Atoms are the smallest units of elements, and they make up all matter. Each atom contains three subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. These particles give an atom its mass and its charge. The idea that matter is made of tiny particles goes back to Democritus, a Greek philosopher around 450 B.C. He used the word atomos, which means “indivisible.” The idea was not accepted at the time, but it returned many centuries later. In the 19th century, John Dalton proposed an atomic...

isotopes

Atomic Mass and Isotope Basics

Atomic mass and isotopes are linked by the number of protons and neutrons in an atom. The number of protons sets an element’s atomic number, or Z. For example, every atom with eight protons is oxygen. Atoms of the same element can still differ because they can have different numbers of neutrons. The mass number, or A, is the total of protons and neutrons. Atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers are called isotopes. Elements can have several isotopes. Carbon-12, carbon-13,...

electron behavior

Electron Shells and Valence Electrons

Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles that occupy regions around the positively charged nucleus of an atom. Their location is linked to energy levels called shells. They are also grouped into sub-shells and orbitals within each shell. An electron’s shell shows its general energy level. Electrons closer to the nucleus have less energy, while electrons farther away have more energy. The sub-shell gives a more exact location and energy level. An orbital is the shape of the region...

Electron orbitals show where electrons are most likely to be found around the atomic nucleus. They also help explain energy levels, orbital shapes, and three-dimensional orientation. In an atom, electron location is described first by a shell, or principal energy level. It is then described by a subshell within that shell and by the individual orbitals inside each subshell. The first shell is closest to the nucleus. It has only one subshell and one spherical orbital, called the 1s orbital.

covalent bonds

Electronegativity and Covalent Bond Polarity

Covalent bonds form when two atoms share electrons to fill their valence shells. The way those shared electrons are pulled depends on electronegativity, which is an atom’s ability to attract electrons in a bond. When atoms have similar electronegativities, they form nonpolar covalent bonds. When their electronegativities differ, the bond is polar because the electrons are shared unevenly. The number of covalent bonds an atom can make depends on its valence electrons. Oxygen has six valence...

ionic bonds

Ionic Compounds and Electrolytes

Ionic compounds form when atoms gain or lose electrons to reach a more stable electron configuration. The charged particles that result are called ions. Ionic bonds are electrostatic attractions between oppositely charged ions. The most reactive elements include those with one valence electron, such as potassium, and those that need one more valence electron, such as chlorine. Ions that lose electrons become positive cations. Ions that gain electrons become negative anions. Cations and anions...

hydrogen bonds

Hydrogen Bonds in Water

Hydrogen bonds in water are weak attractions between atoms that are already part of other chemical bonds. One atom is electronegative, such as oxygen, and carries a partial negative charge. The other is a hydrogen atom that is bonded to another electronegative atom and has a partial positive charge. These attractions form because hydrogen has very weak electronegativity when it binds with a strongly electronegative atom like oxygen or nitrogen. The electrons in that bond are shared unequally.

van der waals interactions

Intermolecular Forces in Polar Solutions

Intermolecular forces are the attractions and repulsions that act between atoms and molecules. These electrostatic forces come from particles with permanent, partial, or temporary charges. For neutral atoms and molecules, the main types are ion-dipole, dipole-dipole, and dispersion forces, which are together called van der Waals forces. Polar molecules have a partial positive end and a partial negative end. That separation of charge creates a dipole. In water, oxygen is more electronegative...

elements and compounds

Elements, Compounds, and Bonding

Elements and compounds are the two main kinds of pure substances. A pure substance contains only one kind of matter. An element contains only one type of atom. A compound contains two or more types of atoms joined by a chemical bond. Elements can be atomic or molecular, depending on their basic units. They are unique forms of matter with specific chemical and physical properties. Ordinary chemical reactions cannot break an element into a smaller substance. There are 118 elements, but only 98...

molecular shapes

Electron Geometry and Lone Pairs

Electron geometry and lone pairs help explain why molecules take specific shapes. The arrangement of electron groups around a central atom controls the molecular geometry. Valence electrons form bonding pairs, which sit mainly between bonded atoms, or lone pairs, which belong to one atom only. Electron pairs in the valence shell spread out to reduce repulsion. They do this by maximizing the distance between one another. A diatomic molecule has two regions of electron density, and these are...

pH Scale in Everyday Solutions

pH measures how acidic or basic a water-based solution is. It depends on the concentration of hydronium ions, H3O+, in the solution. In one liter of pure water at neutral pH, there are 1×10−7 moles of hydronium ions. Because hydronium ion levels can vary over a very wide range, measuring pH directly in moles is not practical. The pH scale converts hydronium ion concentration into a negative logarithm. Pure water has a pH of 7 and is neutral. Most solutions fall between 0 and 14, but some, such...

chemical reactions

Atoms, Bonds, and Chemical Reactions

Chemical reactions rearrange atoms to form new substances. In a reaction, the starting materials are called reactants, and the new substances are called products. The atoms stay the same type and number, but their bonds change, so the substances become different compounds. During a chemical reaction, bonds between atoms break and form again. This means the shared electrons are rearranged. Some reactions happen on their own, while others need an energy source such as heat or light. In biology,...

redox reactions

Electron Transfer in Redox

Redox reactions are chemical reactions that involve electron transfer between atoms or molecules. When one particle gains electrons, another must lose them at the same time. That is why oxidation and reduction always happen together. The two roles in a redox reaction are linked. The atom that is oxidized acts as the reducing agent, or reductant. The atom that is reduced acts as the oxidizing agent, or oxidant. A simple way to remember the ideas is OIL-RIG, which means oxidation is losing...

cohesion

Water Molecules and Surface Tension

Water molecules stick to each other through cohesion. Water is neutral overall, but it is a polar molecule. The oxygen atom in one water molecule has a partial negative charge, and it can bind with a hydrogen atom that has a partial positive charge in another water molecule. This forms a hydrogen bond. Each water molecule can form up to four hydrogen bonds with other water molecules, and these bonds give water its cohesive nature. Cohesion helps water form droplets on a surface. Water does not...

adhesion

Water Climbing by Adhesion

Water can climb or stick to surfaces because of adhesion, which is the attraction between different kinds of molecules. In water, this is easy to see on polar surfaces such as glass or cellulose in plants. The positive hydrogen side of water is more attracted to the negative oxygen in silica than to nearby water molecules. This attraction helps explain capillary action. If a narrow glass tube is placed in a beaker of water, water molecules attach to the tube’s surface and the water level rises.

states of water

Water Phase Changes and Ice Density

Water changes between solid, liquid, and gas states as temperature and molecular motion change. In this lesson, the focus is on how water freezes, melts, vaporizes, and returns to liquid or solid form. The balance between intermolecular forces, which pull molecules together, and kinetic energy, which pushes them apart, controls each state. Water freezes when intermolecular forces become stronger than kinetic energy. Unlike most substances, ice is less dense than liquid water. This happens...

specific heat

How Specific Heat Affects Temperature

Specific heat capacity describes how much energy a substance needs to rise by 1 degree Celsius for each gram. It is often written with calories, grams, and degrees Celsius, but it can also be shown in joules, kilograms, and Kelvin. For water, 1 gram needs 1 calorie to increase by 1°C, which is also written as 1 cal/g-°C or 4186 J/kg/K. Water has a high specific heat capacity, so it takes in a large amount of heat before its temperature changes much. It also gives off a lot of heat when it...

vaporization

Vaporization, Boiling, and Evaporation

Vaporization changes a liquid into vapor when temperature adds enough kinetic energy to overcome intermolecular forces. It is a surface phenomenon, which means it starts at the liquid’s surface. The energy needed to vaporize a set amount of liquid at a given pressure and constant temperature is called the heat of vaporization. Water shows this process clearly. When liquid water is vaporized, it becomes steam. One way this happens is boiling, which occurs when vapor bubbles form beneath the...

solvents

Water as a Biological Solvent

Water acts as a biological solvent in many living systems. A solvent is a substance, usually a liquid, that dissolves another substance called a solute. When a solvent and a solute mix, they form a solution, which is a uniform mixture of both parts. Water is called a universal biological solvent because its polar structure helps it dissolve many other polar compounds. Polarity means that one side of the molecule has a slight positive charge and the other side has a slight negative charge.

carbon skeletons

Carbon Backbones in Biomolecules

Carbon backbones give biological molecules their structure and flexibility. Living things are built from macromolecules that contain carbon atoms, and organic compounds are defined by a carbon backbone. Carbon is tetravalent, so each carbon atom can bond with four other atoms. Its valence electrons are stable, so carbon rarely becomes an ion. As carbon chains get longer, they can form ring structures, double bonds, and branching side chains. Carbon-carbon bonds create the carbon skeleton.

key terms and concepts

Learn how electrons fill shells, subshells, and orbitals, from the 1s, 2s, and 2p levels to Bohr's and Schrödinger's atomic models.

Electron Orbitals and Energy Levels | JoVE K12

JoVE Core series brings biology to life through over 300 concise and easy-to-understand animated video lessons that explain key concepts in biology, plus more than 150 scientist-in-action videos that show actual research experiments conducted in today’s laboratories.

biology

Next Generation Science Standards

Physical Science

HS-PS1-1

HS-PS1-11

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

HS. Structure and Properties of Matter

HS-PS1-1.

formula-mass-and-mole-concepts-of-compounds

Formula Mass and Mole Concepts of Compounds

Formula Mass of Covalent Compounds

Chemical formulas represent the elemental makeup of substances. For covalent compounds, the formula represents the ...

Expressing Solution Concentration

A solute is a component of a solution that is typically present at a much lower concentration than the solvent. Solute concentrations are often described ...

determining-the-mass-percent-composition-in-an-aqueous-solution

Determining the Mass Percent Composition in an Aqueous Solution

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Neal Abrams &#8212; SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry
Determining the composition of a solution is an important ...

Solutions and Concentrations

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Michael Evans &#8212; Georgia Institute of Technology
A solution is a homogeneous mixture containing some components in small ...

Reaction Stoichiometry

A balanced chemical equation provides a great deal of information in a very succinct format. Chemical formulas provide the identities of the reactants and ...

stoichiometry-product-yield-and-limiting-reactants

Stoichiometry, Product Yield, and Limiting Reactants

Chemical equations represent how a chemical reaction proceeds from reactants to products through physical or chemical change using chemical formulas.
...

Understand and be prepared to use values specific to chemical processes: the mole, molar mass, molarity, and percent composition. EXPLANATION: During the early and mid-1800s, a tremendous amount of early research poured into building an understanding of the way that atoms combine. This work required analysis of the percent composition of different substances. Joseph Proust's work with tin oxides led him to publish his law of definite proportions noting that a given pure substance will have a constant ratio for the combination of elements making up the substance. Building on Proust's work, John Dalton published his law of multiple proportions and atomic theory noting that multiple patterns exist for the way that atoms combine, yet the combining atoms are invariable. Meanwhile Amedeo Avogadro hypothesizes that given equal pressures and temperatures, two equal volumes of gas will contain equal numbers of atoms. Acknowledging that the exact number of atoms was unknown in these gaseous volumes, the Latin word "mole" was used. "Mole" translates to "lump" recognizing the ambiguous quantity of gas. A number of attempts have been undertaken historically to quantify the mole. Robert Millikan's oil drop experiment revealed the change of a single electron, which could then be divided into Faraday's Constant for the charge of a mole of electrons. Dividing the charge of a mole of electrons by the charge of a single electron yields the number of electrons in a mole, $6.022\times10^{\wedge}23$. Students should be familiar with how to translate between the given quantities. Student's first use atomism/Dalton's atomic theory in third grade noting that matter is made up of particles too small to be seen. This the first time where students will undertake the process of counting these invisible particles. Electrolysis of water provides a tangible experience to demonstrate the constituent parts of water, though the definite proportions of water may not be easily seen due to the solubility of the gasses produced. The concept of relative mass can be explored by comparing small groups of like items. For example, relative masses of beans can be compared with pinto, white, and black beans. If bags are created with equal numbers of like beans, students can develop a concept of why the smallest bean will have a relative mass of 1, analogous to hydrogen.

CHEM1.PS1.1

Chemical Equations

Chemical equations represent the identities and relative quantities of substances involved in a chemical reaction. The substances undergoing reaction are ...

The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

Chemical Reactions

A chemical reaction is a process by which the bonds in the atoms of substances are rearranged to generate new substances. Matter cannot be created or ...

Balancing Redox Equations

Electrochemistry is the science involved in the interconversion of electrical and chemical reactions. Such reactions are called reduction-oxidation, or ...

Demonstrate that atoms, and therefore mass, are conserved during a chemical reaction by balancing chemical reactions. EXPLANATION: Standard 7.PS1.4 explores the idea that chemical reactions are rearrangements of atoms, and students undertake the process of balancing chemical reactions with that standard in seventh grade. The introduction of molar masses in high school makes an explicit connection between the number of atoms, as previously investigated, and the actual masses of the atoms, permitting the collection of more concrete evidence for the conservation of mass in chemical reactions.

CHEM1.PS1.2

Reaction Yield

The theoretical yield of a reaction is the amount of product estimated to form based on the stoichiometry of the balanced chemical equation. The ...

A balanced chemical equation provides the information of chemical formulas of the reactants and products involved in the chemical change. A ...

Limiting Reactant

The relative amounts of reactants and products represented in a balanced chemical equation are often referred to as stoichiometric amounts. However, in ...

chemical-equilibria-systematic-approach-to-equilibrium-calculations

Chemical Equilibria: Systematic Approach to Equilibrium Calculations

In systems with multiple equilibria, the equilibrium calculations use a systematic approach involving a series of steps to make sure there are as many ...

Perform stoichiometric calculations involving the following relationships: mole- mole; mass-mass; mole-mass; mole- particle; and mass- particle. Show a qualitative understanding of the phenomenon of percent yield, limiting, and excess reagents in a chemical reaction through pictorial and conceptual examples. (states of matter liquid and solid; excluding volume of gasses). EXPLANATION: This standard builds on the idea that balancing chemical reactions provides evidence for conservation of mass and that the behavior of atoms follows predictable patterns. Students now have the opportunity to utilize this understanding as they perform and evaluate chemical reactions. (The concepts of limiting reagent and percent yield are presented; however, students are not expected to determine these values algebraically. Use of molar volume in stoichiometric processes is beyond the scope of this standard.)

CHEM1.PS1.3

Predicting Reaction Outcomes

Kinetics describes the rate and path by which a reaction occurs. In contrast, thermodynamics deals with state functions and describes the properties, ...

Introduction to Chemical Reactions

All chemical reactions begin with a reactant, the general term for one or more substances entering the reaction. Sodium and chloride ions, for example, ...

Chemical Reactions in Aqueous Solutions

Chemical substances interact in many different ways. Certain chemical reactions exhibit common patterns of reactivity. Due to the vast number of chemical ...

Precipitation Reactions

In a precipitation reaction, aqueous solutions of soluble salts react to give an insoluble ionic compound &#x2013; the precipitate. The reaction occurs ...

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

Oxidation&ndash;Reduction Reactions

Earth&rsquo;s atmosphere contains about 20% molecular oxygen, O2, a chemically reactive gas that plays an essential ...

Oxidation Numbers

In redox reactions, the transfer of electrons occurs between reacting species. Electron transfer is described by a hypothetical number called the ...

Acids, Bases and Neutralization Reactions

An acid-base reaction is one in which a hydrogen ion, H+, is transferred from one chemical species to another. Such reactions are of central importance to ...

Synthesis and Decomposition Reactions

Synthesis and decomposition are two types of redox reactions. Synthesis means to make something, whereas decomposition means to break something. The ...

types-of-chemical-reactions-exchange-and-reversible

Types of Chemical Reactions: Exchange and Reversible

An exchange reaction is a chemical reaction in which both synthesis and decomposition occur, chemical bonds are both formed and broken, and chemical ...

Use the reactants in a chemical reaction to predict the products and identify reaction classes (synthesis, decomposition, combustion, single replacement, double replacement). EXPLANATION: Chemical reactions are rearrangements of atoms that follow predicable patterns. There are patterns both at the macroscopic level in the behavior of some of the reaction classes, as well as patterns in the rearrangements of the atoms underlying the reaction. Students should be able to predict the products of the reactions, which also requires the ability to recognize the general patterns for each type of reaction.

CHEM1.PS1.4

kinetic-molecular-theory-gas-laws-explain-properties-gas

Kinetic Molecular Theory and Gas Laws Explain Properties of Gas Molecules

The test of the kinetic molecular theory (KMT) and its postulates is its ability to explain and describe the behavior of a gas. The various gas laws ...

basic-postulates-kinetic-molecular-theory-particle-size-energy

Basic Postulates of Kinetic Molecular Theory: Particle Size, Energy, and Collision

The ideal-gas equation, which is empirical, describes the behavior of gases by establishing relationships between their macroscopic properties. For ...

Ideal Gas Law

Derivation of the Ideal Gas Law
Gases are a fundamental state of matter. A gas is a collection of molecules that have a significant distance between their ...

gas-laws-boyle-s-gay-lussac-charles-avogadro-s-and-ideal-gas-law

Gas Laws: Boyle's, Gay-Lussac, Charles', Avogadro's, and Ideal Gas Law

Through experiments, scientists established the mathematical relationships between pairs of variables, such as pressure and temperature, pressure and ...

kinetic-molecular-theory-molecular-velocities-temperature-kinetic

Kinetic Molecular Theory: Molecular Velocities, Temperature, and Kinetic Energy

The kinetic molecular theory qualitatively explains the behaviors described by the various gas laws. The postulates of this theory may be applied in a ...

Kinetic Theory of an Ideal Gas

A mole is defined as the amount of any substance that contains as many molecules as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12. An Italian scientist ...

applications-of-the-ideal-gas-law-molar-mass-density-and-volume

Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Molar Mass, Density, and Volume

The volume occupied by one mole of a substance is its molar volume. The ideal gas law, PV = nRT, &nbsp;suggests that the volume of a given quantity of gas ...

Conduct investigations to explore and characterize the behavior of gasses (pressure, volume, and temperature), develop models to represent this behavior, and construct arguments to explain this behavior. Evaluate the relationship (qualitative and quantitatively) at STP between pressure and volume (Boyle's Law), temperature and volume (Charles' Law), temperature and pressure (Gay-Lussac Law) and moles and volume (Avogadro's Law), and evaluate and explain these relationships with respect to kinetic molecular theory. Be able to understand, establish, and predict the relationships between volume, temperature, and pressure using combined gas law both qualitatively and quantitatively. EXPLANATION: When exploring the behavior of gasses, it is important to consider experimental design. Experiments used to show the relationships between these sets of variables should include one independent and one dependent variable. Other variables should be held constant. Pressure should serve as the dependent variable because it cannot be manipulated directly. Avogadro's Law can be used to relate the amount of gas in two different containers in lieu of knowing actual number of gas particles in an individual container. Individual demonstrations can be performed to explore each of the different gas laws.

CHEM1.PS1.5

Ideal Gas Equation

The ideal gas equation is an equation of state that relates the state variables pressure, volume, temperature, and the number of moles of a hypothetical ...

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Andreas Z&#252;ttel - Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology
The ideal gas law describes the behavior ...

real-gases-effects-intermolecular-forces-molecular-volume-deriving

Real Gases: Effects of Intermolecular Forces and Molecular Volume Deriving Van der Waals Equation

Thus far, the ideal gas law, PV = nRT, has been applied to a variety of different types of problems, ranging from reaction stoichiometry and empirical and ...

chemical-stoichiometry-gases-using-ideal-gas-law-to-determine

Chemical Stoichiometry and Gases: Using Ideal Gas Law to Determine Moles

Chemical stoichiometry describes the quantitative relationships between reactants and products in chemical reactions.

In addition to measuring quantities ...

pV-Diagrams

The pV diagram, which is a graph of pressure versus volume of the gas under study, is helpful in describing certain aspects of the substance. When the ...

Use the ideal gas law, PV = nRT, to algebraically evaluate the relationship among the number of moles, volume, pressure, and temperature for ideal gases. EXPLANATION: If students have collected data during investigations for CHEM1.PS1.5, these data can then be used to linearize. With pressure assigned as the dependent variable and plotted against (moles) (temperature)/volume, the slope of the graph will be the gas constant, yielding the ideal gas law. After developing the mathematical model, this model can be used to make predictions for other systems.

CHEM1.PS1.6

Separation of Mixtures via Precipitation

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Ana J. Garc&#237;a-S&#225;ez &#8212; University of T&#252;bingen
Most samples of interest are mixtures of many different ...

States of Matter and Phase Changes

The internal energy of a substance&#8212;the total kinetic energy of all its molecules and the potential energy of their associated forces&#8212;depends ...

Distillation: Vapor&ndash;Liquid Equilibria

Distillation is a separation technique that takes advantage of the boiling point properties of disparate elements in a mixture. To perform distillation, ...

Filtration

Filtration is the physical separation of solids from a fluid using a filtration medium.
The filtration medium is chosen depending on the purpose of ...

Centrifugation

Centrifugation is a method of separating suspended particles from a liquid by spinning in a centrifuge at a high number of revolutions per minute.
...

Sublimation

Sublimation is the direct phase transformation from the solid to the gaseous phase, bypassing the liquid state.
For example, solid carbon dioxide, or dry ...

recrystallization-solidsolution-equilibria

Recrystallization: Solid&ndash;Solution Equilibria

Recrystallization is a purification technique used to separate impurities from solid compounds. In this technique, no chemical reactions occur. Instead, ...

Analyze solutions to identify solutes and solvents, quantitatively analyze concentrations (molarity, percent composition, and ppm), and perform separation methods such as evaporation, distillation, and/or chromatography and show conceptual understanding of distillation. Construct argument to justify the use of certain separation methods under different conditions. EXPLANATION: In seventh grade, students developed an understanding that chemical and physical properties of a sample of matter could be used to identify a substance. Building on this understanding, students now explore the use of these physical and chemical properties to separate mixtures. Analysis of the substances is performed to aid in further discussion and facilitate further quantitative analysis.

CHEM1.PS1.7

Electron Orbitals and Energy Levels

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